p53, an important tumor suppressor protein, exerts its function mostly as a sequence-specific transcription factor and is subjected to multiple posttranslational modifications in response to genotoxic stress. Recently, we discovered that lysine methylation of p53 at K372 by Set7/9 (also known as SET7 and Set9) is important for transcriptional activation and stabilization of p53. In this report we provide a molecular mechanism for the effect of p53 methylation on transcription. We demonstrate that Set7/9 activity toward p53, but not the nucleosomal histones, is modulated by DNA damage. Significantly, we show that lysine methylation of p53 is important for its subsequent acetylation, resulting in stabilization of the p53 protein. These p53 modification events can be observed on the promoter of p21 gene, a known transcriptional target of p53. Finally, we show that methylation-acetylation interplay in p53 augments acetylation of histone H4 in the promoter of p21 gene, resulting in its subsequent transcriptional activation and, hence, cell cycle arrest. Collectively, these results suggest that the cross talk between lysine methylation and acetylation is critical for p53 activation in response to DNA damage and that Set7/9 may play an important role in tumor suppression.

During the recent years lysine methyltransferase Set7/9 ((Su(var)-3-9, Enhancer-of-Zeste, Trithorax) domain containing protein 7/9) has emerged as an important regulator of different transcription factors. In this study, we report a novel function for Set7/9 as a critical co-activator of E2 promoter-binding factor 1 (E2F1)-dependent transcription in response to DNA damage. By means of various biochemical, cell biology, and bioinformatics approaches, we uncovered that cell-cycle progression through the G1/S checkpoint of tumour cells upon DNA damage is defined by the threshold of expression of both E2F1 and Set7/9. The latter affects the activity of E2F1 by indirectly modulating histone modifications in the promoters of E2F1-dependent genes. Moreover, Set7/9 differentially affects E2F1 transcription targets: it promotes cell proliferation via expression of the CCNE1 gene and represses apoptosis by inhibiting the TP73 gene. Our biochemical screening of the panel of lung tumour cell lines suggests that these two factors are critically important for transcriptional upregulation of the CCNE1 gene product and hence successful progression through cell cycle. These findings identify Set7/9 as a potential biomarker in tumour cells with overexpressed E2F1 activity. Cell Death and Differentiation (2014) 21, 1889-1899; doi:10.1038/cdd.2014.108; published online 15 August 2014Lysine methylation of non-histone proteins has recently emerged as a novel regulatory mechanism to control protein functions. 1-4Set7/9 ((Su(var)-3-9, Enhancer-of-Zeste, Trithorax) domain containing protein 7/9) is a founding member of the family of non-chromatin lysine methyltransferases (KMTases). Set7/9 was initially identified as a monomethylase of histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) in vitro. 4,5However, we and others showed that the recombinant Set7/9 failed to target nucleosomes for methylation, [6][7][8] suggesting that Set7/9 functions as a factor-specific KMTase. There have been several non-histone proteins reported as the substrates for Set7/9, including TAF10 (TATA box binding protein (TBP)-associated factor, 30 kDa), 9 oestrogen receptor a (ERa), 10 RelA, 11 PCAF (P300/CBP-associated factor), 12 Stat3,13 Yap, 14 and Suv39h1. 15 However, in most cases the functional significance of this methylation is still not clear. The beststudied targets of Set7/9-mediated methylation are p53 16 and E2 promoter-binding factor 1 (E2F1), 17 transcription factors involved in regulation of DNA damage response (DDR).In response to genotoxic stress cancer cells undergo cell-cycle arrest either in G1/S or G2/M or in both checkpoints. The presence of intact p53 in cancer cells mediates transient G1/S checkpoint arrest, 18,19 which allows cells to repair the damaged DNA before replication or, if the amount of damage is insurmountable, drives cells into apoptosis. 20,21On the contrary, the activity of the E2F family transcription factors, especially E2F1, drives cells from the G1/S block to mitosis. 22,23 Transcriptional activity of E2F1, in turn, is repressed by the retin...

BackgroundExpression of the retinoic acid receptor β2 (RAR-β2), a putative tumor suppressor gene, is reduced in various human cancers, including squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) of the uterine cervix. The mechanism of the inhibition of RAR-β2 expression remains obscure. We examined whether methylation of RAR-β2 gene could be responsible for this silencing in cervical SCC.MethodsExpression of RAR-β2 mRNA and methylation status of the 5' region of RAR-β2 gene were examined in 20 matched specimens from patients with cervical SCC and in three cervical cancer cell lines by Northern blot analysis and methylation-specific PCR (MSP) assay or Southern blot analysis respectively.ResultsIn 8 out 20 cervical SCC (40%) the levels of RAR-β2 mRNA were decreased or undetectable in comparison with non-neoplastic cervix tissues. All 8 tumors with reduced levels of RAR-β2 mRNA expression showed methylation of the promoter and the first exon expressed in the RAR-β2 transcript. The RAR-β2 gene from non-neoplastic cervical tissues was mostly unmethylated and expressed, but methylated alleles of the gene were found in three samples of the morphologically normal tissues adjacent to the tumors. Three cervical cancer cell lines with extremely low level of RAR-β2 mRNA expression, SiHA, HeLA and CaSki, also showed methylation of this region of the RAR-β2 gene.ConclusionsThese findings suggest that methylation of the 5' region of RAR-β2 gene may contribute to gene silencing and that methylation of this region may be an important and early event in cervical carcinogenesis. These findings may be useful to make retinoids more effective as preventive and therapeutic agents in combination with inhibitors of DNA methylation.

The tumour suppressor p53 is a crucial regulator of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by acting as a transcription factor to regulate a variety of genes. At least in part, this control is exerted by p53 via regulating expression of numerous microRNAs. We identified two abundantly expressed microRNAs, miR-16 and miR-26a, whose expression is regulated by p53 during the checkpoint arrest induced by the genotoxic drug, doxorubicin. Importantly, among the targets of these miRs are two critical checkpoint kinases, Chk1 and Wee1. The p53-dependent augmentation of miR-16 and miR-26a expression levels led to the cell cycle arrest of tumour cells in G1/S and increased apoptosis. Strikingly, the bioinformatics analysis of survival times for patients with breast and prostate cancers has revealed that co-expression of mir-16 and miR-26a correlated with a better survival outcome. Collectively, our data provide a novel mechanism whereby p53 represses Chk1 and Wee1 expression, at least partially, via upregulation of miR-16 and miR-26a and thus sensitizes tumour cells to genotoxic therapies.

The gene for tyrosine-kinase receptor Ron (MST1R) resides in the chromosome 3p21.3 region, frequently affected in common human malignancies. The gene generates two transcripts, 5 and 2 kb-long, full-length Ron (flRon) and short-form Ron (sfRon), respectively. Here, we show for the first time that the variegated Ron expression is associated with variations in the methylation patterns of two distinct CpG islands in Ron proximal promoter. Widespread hypermethylation associates with lack of flRon whereas hypermethylation of the distal island associates with transcription of sfRon, a constitutively active tyrosine-kinase that drives cell proliferation. sfRon inhibition with kinase-dead transgenes decreases cancer cell growth and induces cellular differentiation. sfRon could be a new drug target in cancer types in which it contributes to tumor progression.

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Key words: TIMP-2, methylation; cervical cancer; HPVCervical precancers are strongly associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. About 5% of untreated cases may progress to the invasive stage of squamous cell carcinoma of cervix after a long latency period. A high percentage of infected women clear the infection, probably by immunological mechanisms. The progression of HPV-infected lesions to cervical cancer and the development of subsequent metastases requires additional modification of cellular genes that allow the affected cell to escape immune responses and facilitate cell invasion and metastasis. 1 The molecular basis for this tumor progression is not defined completely.Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) are well known for their ability to inhibit the activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). MMPs are associated with extracellular matrix turnover that plays an active role in tumor invasion and metastasis. The net MMP activity is the result of the balance between the levels of the activated enzyme and TIMPs. The overproduction of MMPs and their unrestrained activity are associated with malignant conversion of tumor cells. 2 Thus, the inhibitory activity of TIMPs seems to be important for inhibition of malignant progression. In fact, it has been demonstrated in model systems that tumor invasion and metastasis can be inhibited by upregulation of TIMP expression in tumor cells. 3 TIMPs, however, are multifunctional proteins with diverse biological functions different from their MMP-inhibitory activities. To date, 4 different TIMPs are identified: TIMP-1, . The products of all these genes inhibit MMPs, but they differ in tissue-specific expression, in abilities to inhibit various MMPs, to interact with pro-MMPs and to influence tumor angiogenesis. In addition, they may have proapoptotic or anti-apoptotic effects. 4 The inhibitory effects of TIMPs on the primary tumor growth were also demonstrated by the overexpression of TIMPs genes in tumor cells. TIMPs may promote the growth of different cells including normal keratinocytes and fibroblasts. 3 These multiple functions of TIMPs observed in animal model systems indicate that these proteins may modulate even early stages of tumor development and raise questions about their physiological role and possible contribution to the human cancer development and progression.Contradictory results were obtained when TIMPs expression was studied in primary human tumors. On the one hand, the increased expression of both TIMPs and MMPs is often associated with paradoxical adverse prognosis in many solid tumors. 3,5,6 On the other hand, the increased MMP-2 activity and the lack of TIMP-2 expression correlate with poor prognosis in soft tissue sarcomas. 7 In addition, the methylation-associated silencing of TIMP-3 is often observed in many tumor types. 8,9 It has been demonstrated that the high transcription levels of both MMP-2 and MMP-9 and their inhibitors TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 are typical features of the invasive cancer cells of cervix and the surroundin...