Through the introduction of an aryl chloride substituent, the selectivity of palladium-catalyzed direct arylation may be diverted to provide alternative regioisomeric products in high yields. In cases where low reactivity is typically observed, the presence of the carbon-chlorine bond can serve to enhance reactivity and provide superior outcomes. From a strategic perspective, the C-Cl bond is easily introduced and can be employed in a variety of subsequent transformations to provide a wealth of highly functionalized heterocycles with minimal substrate preactivation. The impact of the C-Cl functional group on direct arylation reactivity has also been evaluated mechanistically, and the observed reactivity profiles correlate very well with that predicted by a concerted metalation-deprotonation pathway.

Antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGPs) are a unique class of proteins that are found in many organisms inhabiting subzero environments and ensure their survival by preventing ice growth in vivo. During the last several years, our laboratory has synthesized functional C-linked AFGP analogues (3 and 5) that possess custom-tailored antifreeze activity suitable for medical, commercial, and industrial applications. These compounds are potent inhibitors of ice recrystallization and do not exhibit thermal hysteresis. The current study explores how changes in the length of the amide-containing side chain between the carbohydrate moiety and the polypeptide backbone in 5 influences ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI) activity. Analogue 5 (n = 3, where n is the number of carbons in the side chain) was a potent inhibitor of ice recrystallization, while 4, 6, and 7 (n = 4, 2, and 1, respectively) exhibited no IRI activity. The solution conformation of the polypeptide backbone in C-linked AFGP analogues 4-7 was examined using circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. The results suggested that all of the analogues exhibit a random coil conformation in solution and that the dramatic increase in IRI activity observed with 5 is not due to a change in long-range solution conformation. Variable-temperature (1)H NMR studies on truncated analogues 26-28 failed to elucidate the presence of persistent intramolecular bonds between the amide in the side chain and the peptide backbone. Molecular dynamics simulations performed on these analogues also failed to show persistent intramolecular hydrogen bonds. However, the simulations did indicate that the side chain of IRI-active analogue 26 (n = 3) adopts a unique short-range solution conformation in which it is folded back onto the peptide backbone, orienting the more hydrophilic face of the carbohydrate moiety away from the bulk solvent. In contrast, the solution conformation of IRI-inactive analogues 25, 27, and 28 had fully extended side chains, with the carbohydrate moiety being exposed to bulk solvent. These results illustrate how subtle changes in conformation and carbohydrate orientation dramatically influence IRI activity in C-linked AFGP analogues.

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