Fusarium circinatum, the causal agent of pine pitch canker (PPC), is currently one of the most important threats of Pinus spp. globally. This pathogen is known in many pine-growing regions, including natural and planted forests, and can affect all life stages of trees, from emerging seedlings to mature trees. Despite the importance of PPC, the global distribution of F. circinatum is poorly documented, and this problem is also true of the hosts within countries that are affected. The aim of this study was to review the global distribution of F. circinatum, with a particular focus on Europe. We considered (1) the current and historical pathogen records, both positive and negative, based on confirmed reports from Europe and globally; (2) the genetic diversity and population structure of the pathogen; (3) the current distribution of PPC in Europe, comparing published models of predicted disease distribution; and (4) host susceptibility by reviewing literature and generating a comprehensive list of known hosts for the fungus. These data were collated from 41 countries and used to compile a specially constructed geo-database. A review of 6297 observation records showed that F. circinatum and the symptoms it causes on conifers occurred in 14 countries, including four in Europe, and is absent in 28 countries. Field observations and experimental data from 138 host species revealed 106 susceptible host species including 85 Pinus species, 6 non-pine tree species and 15 grass and herb species. Our data confirm that susceptibility to F. circinatum varies between different host species, tree ages and environmental characteristics. Knowledge on the geographic distribution, host range and the relative susceptibility of different hosts is essential for disease management, mitigation and containment strategies. The findings reported in this review will support countries that are currently free of F. circinatum in implementing effective procedures and restrictions and prevent further spread of the pathogen.
The isolation and identification of Yersinia enterocolitica from minced meat on CIN agar medium is still one of the major problems in food microbiology because of the low selectivity of cefsulodin-irgasan-novobiocin (CIN) agar. A total of 198 minced meat samples were collected from commercial establishments (butcher shops and supermarkets) in seven German cities in order to investigate the sensitivity and specificity of three identification techniques suitable for the differentiation of Y. enterocolitica within the rich background flora on CIN agar plates. As expected isolation of Y. enterocolitica from minced meat on CIN agar medium after 72 h enrichment in peptone, sorbitol and bile salts (PSB) broth was difficult because all plates were abundantly covered with numerous 'typical'Yersinia-like colonies of bull's eye appearance as well as with atypical colonies. Based on the phenotype of the colonies it was possible to detect colonies showing Yersinia-like growth on CIN agar in 52 samples (26%). For identification of Y. enterocolitica the API 20E system (bioMerieux, Nürtingen, Germany), the Yersinia identification kit (Merlin, Bornheim-Hersel, Germany) and a 16S rRNA based PCR assay were compared. Only in one sample (0.5%) a Y. enterocolitica strain was detected by all methods. Of the three identification systems tested for routine laboratory diagnostics the API 20E system was found to be the most suitable tool to identify Y. enterocolitica colonies within the rich background flora from minced meat samples on CIN agar plates.
Marine biofouling is a natural phenomenon representing one of the greatest problems in marine technology (navigation, aquaculture nets, etc). To circumvent these problems, antifouling paints or coatings, i.e. matrices containing biocidal species, are used to protect the submerged surfaces and objects. Polymers containing quaternary phosphonium or quaternary ammonium groups are promising biocidal materials. Such a biocidal polymeric material is the polymeric salt PSSAmC16 formed between the polystyrene sulfonate anion and the cetyltrimethylammonium cation. When embedded into a paint or a polymeric matrix, the cation of PSSAmC16 is gradually dissolved in the surrounding water through an ion exchange mechanism, offering the biocidal protection of the surface. In the present work, the release of PSSAmC16 from the synthetic polymeric matrix poly(methyl methacrylate), PMMA, was evaluated, as a function of the contact time with the surrounding aqueous environment. The PSSAmC16 content in the matrix varied from 0 up to 40 % (wt/wt), while aqueous NaCl solutions with a salt concentration up to 2M were investigated. The release of the polymeric biocidal was quantified through Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Total Nitrogen (TN) measurements. Both methods reveal that the major part of the polymeric biocidal is released within a few days, while release increases with the PSSAmC16 content and it is enhanced by the salinity.
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