Productive interaction of a T lymphocyte with an antigen-presenting cell results in the clustering of the T-cell antigen receptor (TCR) and the recruitment of a large signalling complex to the site of cell-cell contact. Subsequent signal transduction resulting in cytokine gene expression requires the activation of one or more of the multiple isoenzymes of serine/threonine-specific protein kinase C (PKC). Among the several PKC isoenzymes expressed in T cells, PKC-theta is unique in being rapidly recruited to the site of TCR clustering. Here we show that PKC-theta is essential for TCR-mediated T-cell activation, but is dispensable during TCR-dependent thymocyte development. TCR-initiated NF-kappaB activation was absent from PKC-theta(-/-) mature T lymphocytes, but was intact in thymocytes. Activation of NF-kappaB by tumour-necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-1 was unaffected in the mutant mice. Although studies in T-cell lines had suggested that PKC-theta regulates activation of the JNK signalling pathway, induction of JNK was normal in T cells from mutant mice. These results indicate that PKC-theta functions in a unique pathway that links the TCR signalling complex to the activation of NF-kappaB in mature T lymphocytes.

Most developing thymocytes undergo apoptosis because they cannot interact productively with molecules encoded by the major histocompatibility complex. Here, we show that mice lacking the orphan nuclear hormone receptor RORgamma lose thymic expression of the anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-xL. RORgamma thus regulates the survival of CD4+8+ thymocytes and may control the temporal window during which thymocytes can undergo positive selection. RORgamma was also required for development of lymph nodes and Peyer's patches, but not splenic follicles. In its absence, there was loss of a population of CD3-CD4+CD45+ cells that normally express RORgamma and that are likely early progenitors of lymphoid organs. Hence, RORgamma has critical functions in T cell repertoire selection and lymphoid organogenesis.

T cell receptor (TCR) alpha alleles undergo primary and secondary rearrangement in double-positive (DP) thymocytes. By analyzing TCRalpha rearrangement in orphan nuclear receptor RORgamma-deficient mice, in which the DP lifespan is shorter, and in Bcl-x(L)-transgenic mice, in which the DP lifespan is extended, we show that the progression of secondary V(alpha) to J(alpha) rearrangements is controlled by DP thymocyte survival. In addition, because Bcl-x(L) induces a bias towards 3' J(alpha) usage in peripheral T cells, we conclude that the programmed cell death of DP thymocytes is not simply a consequence of failed positive selection. Rather, it limits the progression of rearrangement along the J(alpha) locus and the opportunities for positive selection, thereby regulating the TCRalpha repertoire.

Migration and trafficking receptors of Th17 cells to mucosal tissues have been unclear. We report that Th17 cells preferentially migrate to the intestine and associated-lymphoid tissues, and CCR6 is the homing receptor important for Th17 cell migration to certain tissue microenvironments of the intestine such as Peyer’s patches and other sites where its ligand CCL20 is expressed. We found the cytokine TGF-β1 is required for CCR6 expression while IL-2 suppresses it. CCR6-deficient Th17 cells aberrantly migrate to different compartments of the intestine. Surprisingly, administration of CCR6-deficient Th17 cells into SCID mice led to excessive intestinal inflammation with increased Th1 but decreased Th17 cells and FoxP3+ T cells. In addition, CCR6 deficiency led to aberrantly wide-spread effector T cells in the inflamed intestine of the SCID mice. We conclude that CCR6 regulates Th17 cell migration to the gut and effector T cell balance/distribution in inflamed intestine.

Breakdown in immunological tolerance to self-antigens or uncontrolled inflammation results in autoimmune disorders. Dendritic cells (DCs) play an important role in regulating the balance between inflammatory and regulatory responses in the periphery. However, factors in the tissue microenvironment and the signaling networks critical for programming DCs to control chronic inflammation and promote tolerance are unknown. Here, we show that wnt ligand-mediated activation of β-catenin signaling in DCs is critical for promoting tolerance and limiting neuroinflammation. DC-specific deletion of key upstream (LRP5/6) or downstream mediators (β-catenin) of canonical wnt-signaling in mice exacerbated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) pathology. Mechanistically, loss of LRP5/6-β-catenin-mediated signaling in DCs led to an increased Th1/ Th17 cell differentiation whereas reduced regulatory T cell response. This was due to increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and decreased production of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 and IL-27 by DCs lacking LRP5/6-β-catenin signaling. Consistent with these findings, pharmacological activation of canonical wnt/β-catenin signaling delayed EAE onset and diminished CNS pathology. Thus, the activation of canonical wnt signaling in DCs limits effector T cell responses and represents a potential therapeutic approach to control autoimmune neuroinflammation.

CD4+CD25+ natural Treg cells, which are developed in the thymus, migrate to the periphery to actively maintain self-tolerance. Similar to conventional T cells, TCR signals are critical for the development and activation of Treg cell inhibitory function. While PKC-θ-mediated TCR signals are required for the activation of peripheral naïve T cells, they are dispensable for their thymic development. Here, we show that mice deficient in PKC-θ had a greatly reduced number of CD4 +Foxp3+ Treg cells, which was independent of PKC-θ-regulated survival, as transgenic Bcl-x L could not restore the Treg cell population in PKC-θ −/− mice. Active and WT PKC-θ markedly stimulated, whereas inactive PKC-θ and dominant negative NFAT inhibited Foxp3 promoter activity. In addition, mice-deficient in calcineurin Aβ had a decreased Treg cell population, similar to that observed in PKC-θ deficient mice. It is likely that PKC-θ promoted the development of Treg cells by enhancing Foxp3 expression via activation of the calcineurin/NFAT pathway. Finally, Treg cells deficient in PKC-θ were as potent as WT Treg cells in inhibiting T cell activation, indicating that PKC-θ was not required for Treg cell-mediated inhibitory function. Our data highlight the contrasting roles PKC-θ plays in conventional T cell and natural Treg cell function.

CD4+CD8+ double-positive (DP) thymocytes, which are extremely sensitive to apoptosis, specifically up-regulate Bcl-xL to extend their lifespan. Deletion of the Bcl-xL gene leads to premature apoptosis of the thymocytes. In this study, we show that stabilization of β-catenin, a critical coactivator for T cell factor (TCF), enhances DP thymocyte survival via up-regulating Bcl-xL. Spontaneous or glucocorticoid-induced thymocyte apoptosis was associated with reduced levels of β-catenin and Bcl-xL. Transgenic expression of a stabilized β-catenin protected DP thymocytes from both spontaneous and glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis, resulting in significantly increased thymic cellularity. Compared with the wild-type mice, both protein and transcript levels of Bcl-xL were significantly increased in thymocytes of β-catenin transgenic mice. In addition, TCF-1 as well as β-catenin were able to stimulate transcriptional activity of the reporter driven by a Bcl-xL promoter. β-Catenin/TCF is thus able to act as a signal to up-regulate Bcl-xL levels in DP thymocytes, resulting in their enhanced survival.

Dendritic cells (DCs) sense microbes via multiple innate receptors. Signals from different innate receptors are coordinated and integrated by DCs to generate specific innate and adaptive immune responses against pathogens. Previously, we have shown that two pathogen recognition receptors, TLR2 and dectin-1 that recognize the same microbial stimulus (zymosan) on DCs, induce mutually antagonistic regulatory or inflammatory responses, respectively. How diametric signals from these two receptors are coordinated in DCs to regulate or incite immunity is not known. Here we show that TLR2-signaling via AKT activates the β-catenin/TCF4 pathway in DCs and programs them to drive T regulatory cell differentiation. Activation of β-catenin/TCF4 was critical to induce regulatory molecules interleukin-10 (Il-10) and vitamin A metabolizing enzyme retinaldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (Aldh1a2) and to suppress pro-inflammatory cytokines. Deletion of β-catenin in DCs programmed them to drive TH17/TH1 cell differentiation in response to zymosan. Consistent with these findings, activation of the β-catenin pathway in DCs suppressed chronic inflammation and protected mice from TH17/TH1-mediated autoimmune neuroinflammation. Thus activation of β-catenin in DCs via the TLR2 receptor is a novel mechanism in DCs that regulates autoimmune inflammation.