Hepatopancreatoduodenectomy is a challenging procedure with high morbidity and mortality rates. However, this procedure can provide a chance of long-term survival in patients in whom curative resection is feasible.

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The general understanding has been that only adaptive immunity is capable of immunological memory, but this concept has been challenged in recent years by studies showing that innate immune systems can mount resistance to reinfection—as the innate immune system can adapt its function following an insult. Innate immune training offers an attractive approach in intensive fish larval rearing, especially since the adaptive immune system is not fully developed. Trained innate immunity will potentially favor robust fish in terms of resistance to viral and bacterial diseases. So-called immunostimulants such as ß-glucans have for decades been used both in laboratories and in intensive fish aquaculture. Treatment of fish by ß-glucans (and by other substances with pathogen-associated molecular patterns) often induces activation of non-specific/innate immune mechanisms and induces higher disease resistance. The reported effects of e.g., ß-glucans fit nicely into the concept “trained innate immunity,” but the research on fish does not yet include analysis of epigenetic changes that may be a prerequisite for long-lasting trained innate immunity. In this “perspective,” we will discuss how in practical terms and based on prior knowledge one can introduce innate immune training in brood stock fish, and their offspring, and whether innate immune training by ß-glucans is a viable approach in larval aquaculture.

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The T-box transcription factor T-bet is expressed in a number of hematopoietic cell types in mammals and plays an essential role in the lineage determination of Th1 T-helper cells and is considered as an essential feature for both innate and adaptive immune responses in higher vertebrates. In the present study, we have identified and characterized the full-length Atlantic salmon T-bet cDNA (3502 bp). The putative primary structure of the polypeptide deduced from the cDNA sequence contained 612 aa, which possessed a T-box DNA binding domain. Phylogenetic study and gene synteny revealed it is as a homolog to mammalian T-bet. Quantitative PCR analysis of different tissues in healthy fish showed that salmon T-bet gene was highly expressed in spleen, followed by head kidney, and was expressed in intestine, skin, and liver at lower levels. Moreover, the time-dependent expression profile of T-bet, interferon gamma (IFNγ), interleukin-22 (IL-22), and natural killer enhancement factor in mucosal tissues during water-borne infection with live Aeromonas salmonicida, indicated the involvement of T-bet in mucosal immune response in Atlantic salmon.

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