Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major pathogen causing pneumonia with over 2 million deaths annually, especially in young children and the elderly. To date, at least 98 different pneumococcal capsular serotypes have been identified. Currently, the vaccines for prevention of S. pneumoniae infections are the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide-based vaccine (PPV23) and the pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV10 and PCV13). These vaccines only cover some pneumococcal serotypes and are unable to protect against non-vaccine serotypes and unencapsulated S. pneumoniae. This has led to a rapid increase in antibiotic-resistant non-vaccine serotypes. Hence, there is an urgent need to develop new, effective, and affordable pneumococcal vaccines, which could cover a wide range of serotypes. This review discusses the new approaches to develop effective vaccines with broad serotype coverage as well as recent development of promising pneumococcal vaccines in clinical trials. New vaccine candidates are the inactivated whole-cell vaccine strain (Δpep27ΔcomD mutant) constructed by mutations of specific genes and several protein-based S. pneumoniae vaccines using conserved pneumococcal antigens, such as lipoprotein and surface-exposed protein (PspA). Among the vaccines in Phase 3 clinical trials are the pneumococcal conjugate vaccines, PCV-15 (V114) and 20vPnC. The inactivated whole-cell and several protein-based vaccines are either in Phase 1 or 2 trials. Furthermore, the recent progress of nanoparticles that play important roles as delivery systems and adjuvants to improve the performance, as well as the immunogenicity of the nanovaccines, are reviewed.

Dengue virus belongs to the Flaviviridae family which also includes viruses such as the Zika, West Nile and yellow fever virus. Dengue virus generally causes mild disease, however, more severe forms of the dengue virus infection, dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue haemorrhagic fever with shock syndrome (DSS) can also occur, resulting in multiple organ failure and even death, especially in children. The only dengue vaccine available in the market, CYD-TDV offers limited coverage for vaccinees from 9-45 years of age and is only recommended for individuals with prior dengue exposure. A number of mutations that were shown to attenuate virulence of dengue virus in vitro and/or in vivo have been identified in the literature. The mutations which fall within the conserved regions of all four dengue serotypes are discussed. This review hopes to provide information leading to the construction of a live attenuated dengue vaccine that is suitable for all ages, irrespective of the infecting dengue serotype and prior dengue exposure.

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major human pathogen responsible for significant mortality and morbidity worldwide. Within the annotated genome of the pneumococcus lies a previously uncharacterized protein tyrosine phosphatase which shows homology to low molecular weight protein tyrosine phosphatases (LMWPTPs). LMWPTPs modulate many processes critical for the pathogenicity of a number of bacteria including capsular polysaccharide biosynthesis, stress response and persistence in host macrophages. Here, we demonstrate that Spd1837 is indeed a LMWPTP, by purifying the protein, and characterizing its phosphatase activity. Spd1837 showed specific tyrosine phosphatase activity, and it did not form higher order oligomers in contrast to many other LMWPTPs. Substrate-trapping assays using the wild-type and the phosphatase-deficient Spd1837 identified potential substrates/interacting proteins including major metabolic enzymes such as ATP-dependent-6-phosphofructokinase and Hpr kinase/phosphorylase. Given the tight association between the bacterial basic physiology and virulence, this study hopes to prompt further investigation of how the pneumococcus controls its metabolic flux via the LMWPTP Spd1837.

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading cause of community-acquired pneumonia in all ages worldwide, and with ever-increasing antibiotic resistance, the understanding of its pathogenesis and spread is as important as ever. Recently, we reported the presence of a Low Molecular Weight Tyrosine Phosphatase (LMWPTP) Spd1837 in the pneumococcus. This protein is encoded in an operon, OM001 with two other genes, with previous work implicating this operon as important for pneumococcal virulence. Thus, we set out to investigate the role of the individual genes in the operon during pneumococcal pathogenesis. As LMWPTPs play a major role in capsular polysaccharide (CPS) biosynthesis in many bacteria, we tested the effect of mutating spd1837 and its adjacent genes, spd1836 and spd1838 on CPS levels. Our results suggest that individual deletion of the genes, including the LMWPTP, did not modulate CPS levels, in multiple conditions, and in different strain backgrounds. Following in vivo studies, Spd1836 was identified as a novel virulence factor during pneumococcal invasive disease, in both the lungs and blood, with this protein alone responsible for the effects of operon’s role in virulence. We also showed that a deletion in spd1836, spd1838 or the overall OM001 operon reduced survival in human saliva during the conditions that mimic transmission compared to the wildtype strain. With studies suggesting that survival in human saliva may be important for transmission, this study identifies Spd1836 and Spd1838 as transmission factors, potentially facilitating the spread of the pneumococcus from person to person. Overall, this study hopes to further our understanding of the bacterial transmission that precedes disease and outbreaks.