Summary
Pioneer transcription factors (TFs) function as genomic ‘first responders,’ binding to inaccessible regions of chromatin to promote enhancer formation. The mechanism by which pioneer TFs gain access to chromatin remains an important unanswered question. Here we show that PARP-1, a nucleosome-binding protein, cooperates with intrinsic properties of the pioneer TF Sox2 to facilitate its binding to ‘intractable’ genomic loci in embryonic stem cells. These actions of PARP-1 occur independent of its poly(ADP-ribosyl) transferase activity. PARP-1-dependent Sox2 binding sites reside in euchromatic regions of the genome with relatively high nucleosome occupancy and low co-occupancy by other transcription factors. PARP-1 stabilizes Sox2 binding to nucleosomes at suboptimal sites through cooperative interactions on DNA. Our results define intrinsic and extrinsic features that determine Sox2 pioneer activity. The ‘conditional’ pioneer activity observed with Sox2 at a subset of binding sites may be a key feature of other pioneer TFs operating at intractable genomic loci.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.