Tuberculosis (TB) remains a leading cause of deaths among patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients. Early diagnosis of TB is essential for administering timely anti-TB therapy and improving health outcomes, particularly in the people living with HIV. However, conventional techniques used to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis have significant drawbacks: for example, sputum smear microscopy has low sensitivity, and liquid culture is time-consuming in patients with HIV-TB co-infection due to low sputum production. In addition, while immunological-based methods involving tuberculin skin testing and interferon gamma release assays are commonly used for auxiliary TB diagnosis, they are often inaccurate in immunodeficient patients. Molecular techniques such as line probe assays,
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