System overview of a virtual prosthetic hand with a biorealistic neuromorphic reflex controller, whose inputs are α motor command, γs and γd commands. B.Block diagram of the integrated virtual hand system. It consists of a tendon-driven virtual hand, a pair of antagonistic muscles with the biorealistic controller and a sensory feedback system. Force perturbations can be applied at the fingertip, or at the tendon of flexor/extensor muscles in perturbation experiments. C. Simulation results unveil that the virtual hand has acquired human-like ability of compliant control as follows. (1) The virtual hand can switch control modes between position and force naturally according to external loads. (2) The variability of fingertip force increases with the mean force in proportion (R 2 =0.99, p=0.0000). It implies the capability for fine force manipulation with low levels of muscle activation. (3) The virtual hand can achieve stable control of finger equilibrium positions and reflex regulation of muscle stiffness via Ia afferent, which enhances fingertip and muscle stiffness. (4) Muscle stiffness can be modulated by α command linearly and adaptively adjusted with object stiffness for a given background activation. The length-tension curve and reflex compensation underscore the neuromechanical mechanism of stiffness adaptation.
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