Increasing plant density is a key measure to close the maize (Zea mays L.) yield gap and ensure food security. However, there is a large plant density difference in the fields sown by agronomists and smallholders. The primary cause of this phenomenon is the lack of an effective methodology to systematically analyze the density loss. To identify the plant density loss processes from experimental plots to smallholder fields, a research methodology was developed in this study involving a farmer survey and measurements in a smallholder field. The results showed that the sowing density difference caused by farmer decision-making and plant density losses caused by mechanical and agronomic factors explained 15.5%, 5.5% and 6.8% of the plant density difference, respectively. Changing smallholder attitudes toward the value of increasing the plant density could help reduce this density loss and increase farm yields by 12.3%. Therefore, this methodology was effective for analyzing the plant density loss, and to clarify the primary causes of sowing density differences and plant density loss. Additionally, it was beneficial to identify the priorities and stakeholders who share responsibility for reducing the density loss. The methodology has wide applicability to address the sowing density differences and plant density loss in other areas to narrow crop yield gaps and ensure food security.
As the mainstay of global food security feeding more with less is one of the major challenges faced by smallholder-dominated food production. This challenge has become increasingly more daunting due to the development of smallholders’ livelihood differentiation induced by urbanization. Usually, smallholders take insure approach to food production on chemical fertilizer use, considering the time of part-time jobs. With the continuous improvement of agricultural socialized services, it remains to be verified, whether the impact of smallholders’ livelihood differentiation on optimal chemical fertilizer application will be mitigated. Therefore, we conducted a study in seven provinces of China with 1112 smallholders. Through the mediation model, we found that: (1) the amount of chemical fertilizer use by smallholders was generally higher than the economically optimal level. (2) Smallholders with differentiated livelihoods can significantly reduce chemical fertilizer application and contribute to maintaining the optimal economic chemical fertilizer application level through the mediating effect of agricultural socialized services demand, which is approximately 13.03%. (3) With farmer livelihood differentiation, the increase in smallholders’ demand for socialized services includes not only an increase in the probability of service selection but also an increase in the demand for service intensity and organization degree of the service providers.
In practice, most Chinese farmers usually apply excessive fertilizers to ensure wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield, resulting in environmental impacts. How to maintain an even increase wheat yield with less fertilizers is still not clear. This study evaluated the yield, quality, nutrient accumulation, and environmental costs of winter wheat under optimal fertilization management strategies. A field trial was set up with a randomized block design, constituted of eight different fertilization management strategies and four replicate plots. The results showed that optimal fertilization management strategy increased wheat yield and net benefit, and increased N, P, K accumulation, N and P fertilizer partial productivity and N and P uptake efficiency. Compared with the farmers’ practice, the yield in the different optimal fertilization management strategies was increased by 2.21–8.42% through improving the spike number or the grain number per spike. Meanwhile, the net benefit increased by 6.83–11.29% in different optimal fertilization management strategies. Furthermore, NO3− leaching and nitrous oxide (N2O) emission in the different optimal fertilization managements were reduced by 25.50–35.15%, 48.80–60.26%, and 29.60–38.36%, respectively. In conclusion, CF3, CF1, 90%CF1 fertilization management can not only achieve high yield of wheat, but also improve economic benefits and reduce environmental costs, which are effective fertilization management strategies.
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