Injecting CO(2) into deep geological strata is proposed as a safe and economically favourable means of storing CO(2) captured from industrial point sources. It is difficult, however, to assess the long-term consequences of CO(2) flooding in the subsurface from decadal observations of existing disposal sites. Both the site design and long-term safety modelling critically depend on how and where CO(2) will be stored in the site over its lifetime. Within a geological storage site, the injected CO(2) can dissolve in solution or precipitate as carbonate minerals. Here we identify and quantify the principal mechanism of CO(2) fluid phase removal in nine natural gas fields in North America, China and Europe, using noble gas and carbon isotope tracers. The natural gas fields investigated in our study are dominated by a CO(2) phase and provide a natural analogue for assessing the geological storage of anthropogenic CO(2) over millennial timescales. We find that in seven gas fields with siliciclastic or carbonate-dominated reservoir lithologies, dissolution in formation water at a pH of 5-5.8 is the sole major sink for CO(2). In two fields with siliciclastic reservoir lithologies, some CO(2) loss through precipitation as carbonate minerals cannot be ruled out, but can account for a maximum of 18 per cent of the loss of emplaced CO(2). In view of our findings that geological mineral fixation is a minor CO(2) trapping mechanism in natural gas fields, we suggest that long-term anthropogenic CO(2) storage models in similar geological systems should focus on the potential mobility of CO(2) dissolved in water.
23This paper presents the initial results of a scientific drilling project to recover core 24 and pressurized fluid samples from a natural CO 2 reservoir, near the town of Green River, 25Utah. The drilling targeted a stacked sequence of CO 2 -charged Jurassic sandstone reservoirs 26 and caprocks, situated adjacent to a CO 2 -degassing normal fault. This site has actively 27 leaked CO 2 from deep supercritical CO 2 reservoirs at depth >2km within the basin for over 28 Geyser constrain mixing models which show that, within the Navajo Sandstone, the 49 reservoir fluids are undergoing complex mixing of: (i) CO 2 -saturated brine inflowing from 50 the fault, (ii) CO 2 -undersaturated meteoric groundwater flowing through the reservoir and 51 (iii) reacted CO 2 -charged brines flow through fracture zones in the overlying Carmel 52Formation caprock, into the formations above. Such multi-scale mixing processes may 53 significantly improve the efficiency with which groundwaters dissolve the migrating CO 2 .
We report on the development, validation, and utility of a measure assessing individual differences in activation of the parental care motivational system: The Parental Care and Tenderness (PCAT) questionnaire. Results from 1,608 adults (including parents and nonparents) show that the 25-item PCAT measure has high internal consistency, high test-retest reliability, high construct validity, and unique predictive utility. Among parents, it predicted self-child identity overlap and caring child-rearing attitudes; among nonparents, it predicted desire to have children. PCAT scores predicted the intensity of tender emotions aroused by infants, and also predicted the amount of time individuals chose look at infant (but not adult) faces. PCAT scores uniquely predicted additional outcomes in the realm of social perception, including mate preferences, moral judgments, and trait inferences about baby-faced adults. Practical and conceptual implications are discussed.
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