Chronic exposure to manganese (Mn) can cause manganism, a neurodegenerative disorder similar to Parkinson's disease. The toxicity of Mn includes impairment of astrocytic glutamate transporters. 17β-Estradiol (E2) has been shown to be neuroprotective in various neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, and some selective estrogen receptor modulators, including tamoxifen (TX), also possess neuroprotective properties. We have tested our hypothesis that E2 and TX reverse Mn-induced glutamate transporter impairment in astrocytes. The results established that E2 and TX increased glutamate transporter function and reversed Mn-induced glutamate uptake inhibition, primarily via the up-regulation of glutamate/aspartate transporter (GLAST). E2 and TX also increased astrocytic GLAST mRNA levels and attenuated the Mn-induced inhibition of GLAST mRNA expression. In addition, E2 and TX effectively increased the expression of transforming growth factor β1, a potential modulator of the stimulatory effects of E2/TX on glutamate transporter function. This effect was mediated by the activation of MAPK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathways. These novel findings suggest, for the first time, that E2 and TX enhance astrocytic glutamate transporter expression via increased transforming growth factor β1 expression. Furthermore, the present study is the first to show that both E2 and TX effectively reverse Mn-induced glutamate transport inhibition by restoring its expression and activity, thus offering a potential therapeutic modality in neurodegenerative disorders characterized by altered glutamate homeostasis.

Excessive free radical formation has been implicated as a causative factor in neurotoxic damage associated with exposures to a variety of metals, including manganese (Mn). It is well established that Mn accumulates in astrocytes, affecting their ability to indirectly induce and/or exacerbate neuronal dysfunction. The present study examined the effects of Mn treatment on the following endpoints in primary astrocyte cultures: (1) oxidative injury, (2) alterations in high-energy phosphate (adenosine 5'-triphosphate, ATP) levels, (3) mitochondrial inner membrane potential, and (4) glutamine uptake and the expression of glutamine transporters. We quantified astrocyte cerebral oxidative damage by measuring F(2)-isoprostanes (F(2)-IsoPs) using stable isotope dilution methods followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with selective ion monitoring. Our data showed a significant (p < 0.01) elevation in F(2)-IsoPs levels at 2 h following exposure to Mn (100 microM, 500 microM, or 1 mM). Consistent with this observation, Mn induced a concentration-dependent reduction in ATP and the inner mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsi(m)), measured by the high pressure liquid chromatography method and the potentiometric dye, tetramethyl rhodamine ethyl ester, respectively. Moreover, 30 min of pretreatment with Mn (100 microM, 500 microM, or 1 mM) inhibited the net uptake of glutamine (GLN) ((3)H-glutamine) measured at 1 and 5 min. Expression of the messenger RNA coding the GLN transporters, SNAT3/SN1 and SNAT1, was inhibited after 100 and 500 microM Mn treatment for 24 h. Our results demonstrate that induction of oxidative stress, associated mitochondrial dysfunction, and alterations in GLN/glutamate cycling in astrocytes represent key mechanisms by which Mn exerts its neurotoxicity.

J. Neurochem. (2010) 112, 1190–1198. Abstract Although manganese (Mn) is an essential trace element for human development and growth, chronic exposure to excessive Mn levels can result in psychiatric and motor disturbances, referred to as manganism. However, there are no known mechanism(s) for efflux of excess Mn from mammalian cells. Here, we test the hypothesis that the cytoplasmic iron (Fe) exporter ferroportin (Fpn) may also function as a Mn exporter to attenuate Mn toxicity. Using an inducible human embryonic kidney (HEK293T) cell model, we examined the influence of Fpn expression on Mn‐induced cytotoxicity and intracellular Mn concentrations. We found that induction of an Fpn‐green fluorescent protein fusion protein in HEK293T cells was cytoprotective against several measures of Mn toxicity, including Mn‐induced cell membrane leakage and Mn‐induced reductions in glutamate uptake. Fpn‐green fluorescent protein mediated cytoprotection correlated with decreased Mn accumulation following Mn exposure. Thus, Fpn expression reduces Mn toxicity concomitant with reduced Mn accumulation. To determine if mammalian cells may utilize Fpn in response to increased intracellular Mn concentrations and toxicity, we assessed endogenous Fpn levels in Mn‐exposed HEK293T cells and in mouse brain in vivo. We find that 6 h of Mn exposure in HEK293T cells is associated with a significant increase in Fpn levels. Furthermore, mice exposed to Mn showed an increase in Fpn levels in both the cerebellum and cortex. Collectively, these results indicate that (i) Mn exposure promotes Fpn protein expression, (ii) Fpn expression reduces net Mn accumulation, and (iii) reduces cytotoxicity associated with exposure to this metal.

was also associated with increased leakage of lactate dehydrogenase into the media as well as reduced cell viability measured by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide reduction assay. In contrast, knock-down of LAT1 decreased the uptake of L-cysteine-conjugated MeHg and attenuated the effects of MeHg on lactate dehydrogenase leakage and CHO-k1 cell viability. These results indicate that the MeHg-L-cysteine conjugate is a substrate for the neutral amino acid transporter, LAT1, which actively transports MeHg across membranes. 1988;Aschner et al. 1990;Kerper et al. 1992;Mokrzan et al. 1995;Kajiwara et al. 1996;Simmons-Willis et al. 2002). Among amino acid transporters, the ubiquitous transport system L acts independently of sodium, other ions or ATP (Oxender and Christensen 1963;Prasad et al. 1999). LAT1 preferentially transports the branched and aromatic amino acids, such as leucine, isoleucine, valine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, histidine and methionine (Kanai et al. 1998;Yanagida et al. 2001). It is composed of a catalytic multi-transmembrane spanning protein and requires an additional integral membrane protein, the heavy chain of 4F2 (4F2hc, slc3A2) antigen (CD98), for functional expression as an amino acid transporter (Kanai et al. 1998;Nakamura et al. 1999;Verrey 2003). LAT1 and 4F2hc form a heterodimeric functional complex via a disulfide bond between Cys109 of human 4F2hc and Cys164 of human LAT1 (Kanai et al. 1998;Mastroberardino et al. 1998). LAT1 mRNA is abundant in the human placenta, thymus, testis as well as the brain, and has been found to be highly expressed in nearly all tested tumor cell lines of various origins (Yanagida et al. 2001). Human brain astrocytomas, U343 MGa (Langlois et al. 2002), highly express LAT1 and 4F2hc mRNAs and proteins, and LAT1 is functionally expressed at the cell surface (Kühne et al. 2007). The tissue distribution of LAT1 suggests that it is mainly involved in transporting amino acids into dividing and proliferating cells (Kageyama et al. 2000). LAT1 has been proposed to function as one of the major nutrient transport systems at the blood-brain barrier (BBB), being highly expressed in the brain capillary endothelial cells . In agreement with its crucial role in the transport of essential amino acids during brain development, BBB LAT1 mRNA levels are particularly high during the prenatal period, followed by down-regulation in the postnatal period (Boado et al. 2004). The present study was designed to investigate the hypothesis that LAT1 mediates MeHg transport into cells that it shows specificity to the L-cysteine enantiomorph, and that MeHg toxicity is attenuated when LAT1 transport is competitively inhibited with excess L-methionine, a substrate for this transporter. Materials and methodsCell culture CHO-k1 cells (ATCC CCL-61) were cultured in Ham's F12 medium (F12k) with 2 mM L-glutamine and 1.5 g/L sodium bicarbonate supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% Penicillin/ Streptomycin. Cells were incubated at 37°C in a 5% CO 2...

The neurotoxicity of high levels of methylmercury (MeHg) is well established both in humans and experimental animals. Astrocytes accumulate MeHg and play a prominent role in mediating MeHg toxicity in the central nervous system (CNS). Although the precise mechanisms of MeHg neurotoxicity are ill-defined, oxidative stress and altered mitochondrial and cell membrane permeability appear to be critical factors in its pathogenesis. The present study examined the effects of MeHg treatment on oxidative injury, mitochondrial inner membrane potential, glutamine uptake and expression of glutamine transporters in primary astrocyte cultures. MeHg caused a significant increase in F 2 -isoprostanes (F 2 -IsoPs), lipid peroxidation biomarkers of oxidative damage, in astrocyte cultures treated with 5 or 10 μ M MeHg for 1 or 6 hours. Consistent with this observation, MeHg induced a concentration-dependant reduction in the inner mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), as assessed by the potentiometric dye, tetramethylrhodamine ethyl ester (TMRE). Our results demonstrate that ΔΨ m is a very sensitive endpoint for MeHg toxicity, since significant reductions were observed after only 1 h exposure to concentrations of MeHg as low as 1 μ M. MeHg pretreatment (1, 5 and 10 μ M) for 30 min also inhibited the net uptake of glutamine ( 3 H-glutamine) measured at 1 min and 5 min. Expression of the mRNA coding the glutamine transporters, SNAT3/SN1 and ASCT2, was inhibited only at the highest (10 μ M) MeHg concentration, suggesting that the reduction in glutamine uptake observed after 30 min treatment with lower concentrations of MeHg (1 and 5 μ M) was not due to inhibition of transcription. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that MeHg exposure is associated with increased mitochondrial membrane permeability, alterations in glutamine/glutamate cycling, increased ROS formation and consequent oxidative injury. Ultimately, MeHg initiates multiple additive or synergistic disruptive mechanisms that lead to cellular dysfunction and cell death.Please send request for reprints to Michael Aschner, Ph.D.,

Glutamate transporter-1 (GLT-1) plays a central role in preventing excitotoxicity by removing excess glutamate from the synaptic clefts. 17β-estradiol (E2) and tamoxifen (TX), a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM), afford neuroprotection in a range of experimental models. However, the mechanisms that mediate E2 and TX neuroprotection have yet to be elucidated. We tested the hypothesis that E2 and TX enhance GLT-1 function by increasing transforming growth factor (TGF)-α expression and thus, attenuate manganese (Mn)-induced impairment in astrocytic GLT-1 expression and glutamate uptake in rat neonatal primary astrocytes. The results showed that E2 (10 nM) and TX (1 μM) increased GLT-1 expression and reversed the Mn-induced reduction in GLT-1, both at the mRNA and protein levels. E2/TX also concomitantly reversed the Mn-induced inhibition of astrocytic glutamate uptake. E2/TX activated the GLT-1 promoter and attenuated the Mn-induced repression of the GLT-1 promoter in astrocytes. TGF-α knock-down (siRNA) abolished the E2/TX effect on GLT-1 expression, and inhibition of epidermal growth factor receptor (TGF-α receptor) suppressed the effect of E2/TX on GLT-1 expression and GLT-1 promoter activity. E2/TX also increased TGF-α mRNA and protein levels with a concomitant increase in astrocytic glutamate uptake. All estrogen receptors (ERs: ER-α ER-β and GPR30) were involved in mediating E2 effects on the regulation of TGF-α, GLT-1, and glutamate uptake. These results indicate that E2/TX increase GLT-1 expression in astrocytes via TGF-α signaling, thus offering an important putative target for the development of novel therapeutics for neurological disorders.

As the two major glial cell types in the brain, astrocytes and microglia play pivotal but different roles in maintaining optimal brain function. Although both cell types have been implicated as major targets of methylmercury (MeHg), their sensitivities and adaptive responses to this metal can vary given their distinctive properties and physiological functions. This study was carried out to compare the responses of astrocytes and microglia following MeHg treatment, specifically addressing the effects of MeHg on cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and glutathione (GSH) levels, as well as mercury (Hg) uptake and the expression of NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). Results showed that microglia are more sensitive to MeHg than astrocytes, a finding that is consistent with their higher Hg uptake and lower basal GSH levels. Microglia also demonstrated higher ROS generation compared to astrocytes. Nrf2 and its downstream genes were upregulated in both cell types, but with different kinetics (much faster in microglia). In summary, microglia and astrocytes each exhibit a distinct sensitivity to MeHg, resulting in their differential temporal adaptive responses. These unique sensitivities appear to be dependent on the cellular thiol status of the particular cell type.

Methylmercury (MeHg) preferentially accumulates in glia of the central nervous system (CNS), but its toxic mechanisms have yet to be fully recognized. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that MeHg induces neurotoxicity via oxidative stress mechanisms, and that these effects are attenuated by the antioxidant, ebselen. Rat neonatal primary cortical astrocytes were pretreated with or without 10 μM ebselen for 2 hours followed by MeHg (0, 1, 5, and 10 μM) treatments. MeHg-induced changes in astrocytic [ 3 H]-glutamine uptake were assessed along with changes in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ m ), using the potentiometric dye tetramethylrhodamine ethyl ester (TMRE). Western blot analysis was used to detect MeHginduced ERK (extracellular-signal related kinase) phosphorylation and caspase-3 activation. MeHg treatment significantly decreased (p<0.05) astrocytic [ 3 H]-glutamine uptake at all time points and concentrations. Ebselen fully reversed MeHg's (1 μM) effect on [ 3 H]-glutamine uptake at 1 min. At higher MeHg concentrations, ebselen partially reversed the MeHg-induced astrocytic inhibition of [ 3 H]-glutamine uptake [at 1 min (5 and 10 μM) (p<0.05); 5 min (1, 5 and 10 μM) (p<0.05)]. MeHg treatment (1 hour) significantly (p<0.05) dissipated the ΔΨ m in astrocytes as evidenced by a decrease in mitochondrial TMRE fluorescence. Ebselen fully reversed the effect of 1 μM MeHg treatment for 1 hour on astrocytic ΔΨ m and partially reversed the effect of 5 and 10 μM MeHg treatments for 1 hour on ΔΨ m . In addition, ebselen inhibited MeHg-induced phosphorylation of ERK (p<0.05) and blocked MeHg-induced activation of caspase-3 (p<0.05 to 0.01). These results are consistent with the hypothesis that MeHg exerts its toxic effects via oxidative stress and that the phosphorylation of ERK and the dissipation of the astrocytic mitochondrial membrane potential are involved in MeHg toxicity. In addition, the protective effects elicited by ebselen reinforce the idea that organic selenocompounds represent promising strategies to counteract MeHg-induced neurotoxicity.