The activation process and the gettering mechanisms of Zr−Corare earth metal alloy getters were investigated. The evolution of the surface composition prior to and upon exposure to volatile molecules (O 2 , N 2 , CO 2 ) was monitored in situ using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy under annealing conditions compatible with low processing temperature regimes. The thermally activated process of surface oxygen diffusion into the bulk was elucidated and found to involve an activation energy of 0.21 ± 0.02 eV in the 200−350 °C temperature range. This activation process was also found to reversibly transform ZrO 2 into Zr(OH) 2 through the interaction with thermally desorbed hydrogen. Carbidic species form upon annealing at 250 °C via the interaction with an adventitious carbon layer on the surface, which results in the decrease in the number of surface sites available for subsequent gettering. In situ studies of the material reactivity with high purity O 2 , N 2 , and CO 2 were also investigated. O 2 was found to saturate the surface after single exposure, while CO 2 dissociates into CO and O − , where O − is incorporated deeper in the material and CO forms an ad-layer on the surface of the getter. N 2 was found to weakly interact with the partially activated surface and to form ZrN only upon annealing the sample to 350 °C indicating the poor reactivity of the material with N 2 at room temperature. The results display the importance of ridding systems of residual gases, especially N 2 , by properly degassing the system prior to sealing to minimize and/or eliminate trapped gases within devices during operation.
Lebanese prisoners during the Israeli occupation of Lebanon (1981-1999) were subject to regular torture. We examined the association between torture events and post-traumatic stress and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) among former women political prisoners. We conducted a retrospective survey and performed health check-ups among 108 former women prisoners. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was measured through the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS), and CVDs were assessed by physicians' diagnoses. The study was conducted between September 2008 and March 2010. All 67 participants in the study reported having been subjected to a variety of torture events. The prevalence of PTSD was 28.4% and that of CVD was 16.42%, respectively. PTSD and CVD were more likely to occur among women who had had longer imprisonment periods, and PTSD specifically was associated with exposure to torture (beating: OR = 1.49; 95% CI [0.48, 4.27] and threatening by rape: OR = 1.43; 95% CI [0.82, 9.30]). CVD was associated with asphyxia with water (OR = 3.86; 95% CI [0.03, 2.28]). Devoutness decreased the risk of PTSD (OR = 0.24; 95% CI [0.08, 1.41]). Torture had adverse long-term effects on prisoners' physiological and psychological health; devoutness played a significant protective role. This study highlights the importance of documenting torture events and identifying the indicators of associated morbidity among surviving political prisoners for the provision of additional resources to care.
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