Calcium regulates a wide spectrum of physiological processes such as heartbeat, muscle contraction, neuronal communication, hormone release, cell division, and gene transcription. Major entry-ways for Ca2+ in excitable cells are high-voltage activated (HVA) Ca2+channels. These are plasma membrane proteins composed of several subunits, including α1, α2δ, β, and γ. Although the principal α1 subunit (Cavα1) contains the channel pore, gating machinery and most drug binding sites, the cytosolic auxiliary β subunit (Cavβ) plays an essential role in regulating the surface expression and gating properties of HVA Ca2+ channels. Cavβ is also crucial for the modulation of HVA Ca2+ channels by G proteins, kinases, and the Ras-related RGK GTPases. New proteins have emerged in recent years that modulate HVA Ca2+ channels by binding to Cavβ. There are also indications that Cavβ may carry out Ca2+ channel-independent functions, including directly regulating gene transcription. All four subtypes of Cavβ, encoded by different genes, have a modular organization, consisting of three variable regions, a conserved guanylate kinase (GK) domain, and a conserved Src-homology 3 (SH3) domain, placing them into the membrane-associated guanylate kinase (MAGUK) protein family. Crystal structures of Cavβs reveal how they interact with Cavα1, open new research avenues, and prompt new inquiries. In this article, we review the structure and various biological functions of Cavβ, with both a historical perspective as well as an emphasis on recent advances.

Mutations in PKD1 and TRPP2 account for nearly all cases of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). These 2 proteins form a receptor/ion channel complex on the cell surface. Using a combination of biochemistry, crystallography, and a single-molecule method to determine the subunit composition of proteins in the plasma membrane of live cells, we find that this complex contains 3 TRPP2 and 1 PKD1. A newly identified coiled-coil domain in the C terminus of TRPP2 is critical for the formation of this complex. This coiled-coil domain forms a homotrimer, in both solution and crystal structure, and binds to a single coiled-coil domain in the C terminus of PKD1. Mutations that disrupt the TRPP2 coiled-coil domain trimer abolish the assembly of both the full-length TRPP2 trimer and the TRPP2/PKD1 complex and diminish the surface expression of both proteins. These results have significant implications for the assembly, regulation, and function of the TRPP2/PKD1 complex and the pathogenic mechanism of some ADPKD-producing mutations.autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease ͉ single-molecule imaging ͉ stoichiometry ͉ transient receptor potential channel ͉ X-ray crystallography

The voltage-gated Ca2+ channel β subunit (Cavβ) is a cytosolic auxiliary subunit that plays an essential role in regulating the surface expression and gating properties of high-voltage activated (HVA) Ca2+ channels. It is also crucial for the modulation of HVA Ca2+ channels by G proteins, kinases, Ras-related RGK GTPases, and other proteins. There are indications that Cavβ may carry out Ca2+ channel-independent functions. Cavβ knockouts are either non-viable or result in a severe pathophysiology, and mutations in Cavβ have been implicated in disease. In this article, we review the structure and various biological functions of Cavβ, as well as recent advances.

The lack of a calcium channel agonist (e.g., BayK8644) for CaV2 channels has impeded their investigation. Roscovitine, a potent inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinases 1, 2, and 5, has recently been reported to slow the deactivation of P/Q-type calcium channels (CaV2.1). We show that roscovitine also slows deactivation (EC(50) approximately 53 microM) of N-type calcium channels (CaV2.2) and investigate gating alterations induced by roscovitine. The onset of slowed deactivation was rapid ( approximately 2 s), which contrasts with a slower effect of roscovitine to inhibit N-current (EC(50) approximately 300 microM). Slow deactivation was specific to roscovitine, since it could not be induced by a closely related cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, olomoucine (300 microM). Intracellularly applied roscovitine failed to slow deactivation, which implies an extracellular binding site. The roscovitine-induced slow deactivation was accompanied by a slight left shift in the activation-voltage relationship, slower activation at negative potentials, and increased inactivation. Additional data showed that roscovitine preferentially binds to the open channel to slow deactivation. A model where roscovitine reduced a backward rate constant between two open states was able to reproduce the effect of roscovitine on both activation and deactivation.

Mutations in PKD1 and TRPP2 account for nearly all cases of autoso-mal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). These 2 proteins form a receptor/ion channel complex on the cell surface. Using a combination of biochemistry, crystallography, and a single-molecule method to determine the subunit composition of proteins in the plasma membrane of live cells, we find that this complex contains 3 TRPP2 and 1 PKD1. A newly identified coiled-coil domain in the C terminus of TRPP2 is critical for the formation of this complex. This coiled-coil domain forms a homotrimer, in both solution and crystal structure, and binds to a single coiled-coil domain in the C terminus of PKD1. Mutations that disrupt the TRPP2 coiled-coil domain trimer abolish the assembly of both the full-length TRPP2 trimer and the TRPP2/PKD1 complex and diminish the surface expression of both proteins. These results have significant implications for the assembly, regulation, and function of the TRPP2/PKD1 complex and the patho-genic mechanism of some ADPKD-producing mutations. autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease single-molecule imaging stoichiometry transient receptor potential channel X-ray crystallography

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The Rem, Rem2, Rad, and Gem/Kir (RGK) family of small GTP-binding proteins potently inhibits high voltage-activated (HVA) Ca 2+ channels, providing a powerful means of modulating neural, endocrine, and muscle functions. The molecular mechanisms of this inhibition are controversial and remain largely unclear. RGK proteins associate directly with Ca 2+ channel β subunits (Ca v β), and this interaction is widely thought to be essential for their inhibitory action. In this study, we investigate the molecular underpinnings of Gem inhibition of P/Q-type Ca 2+ channels. We find that a purified Gem protein markedly and acutely suppresses P/Q channel activity in inside-out membrane patches, that this action requires Ca v β but not the Gem/Ca v β interaction, and that Gem coimmunoprecipitates with the P/Q channel α 1 subunit (Ca v α 1 ) in a Ca v β-independent manner. By constructing chimeras between P/Q channels and Gem-insensitive low voltage-activated T-type channels, we identify a region encompassing transmembrane segments S1, S2, and S3 in the second homologous repeat of Ca v α 1 critical for Gem inhibition. Exchanging this region between P/Q and T channel Ca v α 1 abolishes Gem inhibition of P/Q channels and confers Ca v β-dependent Gem inhibition to a chimeric T channel that also carries the P/Q I-II loop (a cytoplasmic region of Ca v α 1 that binds Ca v β). Our results challenge the prevailing view regarding the role of Ca v β in RGK inhibition of high voltage-activated Ca 2+ channels and prompt a paradigm in which Gem directly binds and inhibits Ca v β-primed Ca v α 1 on the plasma membrane.

Dihydropyridines can affect L‐type calcium channels (CaV1) as either agonists or antagonists. Seliciclib or R‐roscovitine, a 2,6,9‐trisubstituted purine, is a potent cyclin‐dependent kinase inhibitor that induces both agonist and antagonist effects on CaV2 channels (N‐, P/Q‐ and R‐type). We studied the effects induced by various trisubstituted purines on CaV2.2 (N‐type) channels to learn about chemical structure–function relationships. We found that S‐roscovitine and R‐roscovitine showed similar potency to inhibit, but agonist activity of S‐roscovitine required at least a 20‐fold higher concentration, suggesting stereospecificity of the agonist‐binding site. The testing of other trisubstituted purines showed a correlation between CaV2.2 inhibition and cyclin‐dependent kinase affinity that broke down after determining that a chemically unrelated inhibitor, kenpaullone, was a poor CaV2.2 inhibitor, and a kinase inactive analog (dimethylamino‐olomoucine; DMAO) was a strong inhibitor, which together support a kinase independent effect. In fact, like dihydropyridine‐induced L‐channel inhibition, R‐roscovitine left‐shifted the closed‐state inactivation versus voltage relationship, which suggests that inhibition results from CaV2 channels moving into the inactivated state. Trisubstituted purine antagonists could become clinically important drugs to treat diseases, such as heart failure and neuropathic pain that result from elevated CaV2 channel activity.