Using data for 25,780 species categorized on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List, we present an assessment of the status of the world’s vertebrates. One-fifth of species are classified as Threatened, and we show that this figure is increasing: On average, 52 species of mammals, birds, and amphibians move one category closer to extinction each year. However, this overall pattern conceals the impact of conservation successes, and we show that the rate of deterioration would have been at least one-fifth again as much in the absence of these. Nonetheless, current conservation efforts remain insufficient to offset the main drivers of biodiversity loss in these groups: agricultural expansion, logging, overexploitation, and invasive alien species

Introduction 2Definitions 3Bisexual 3Abstract Teleost fishes are characterized by a diversity of sexual patterns. Hermaphroditism, the expression of both male and female reproductive function in a single individual, generates the most curiosity and controversy. Yet diagnosis of this form of sexuality continues to challenge workers, in particular the distinction between functional and non-functional hermaphroditism. This distinction, reflected as it is in the relationships between gonad form and function, is important if we wish to improve our understanding of the origin of hermaphroditism in the teleosts and of its highly sporadic expression today. Although structure can indicate phylogenetic affinities, it does not always reflect reproductive function, and function is important for understanding adaptation. With resurgent interest in hermaphroditism comes the recognition that understanding sexual pattern is not only important for better knowledge of reproductive biology and ecology but may also elucidate phylogenetic relationships. On the basis of a conservative and clearly defined set of diagnostic criteria, which incorporate new accounts of hermaphroditic species, and by applying an improved understanding of gonadal ontogeny, a comprehensive review and careful re-examination of all primary literature was conducted. This overview documents the incidence of hermaphroditism in teleosts and explores its phylogenetic distribution, possible origin and range of expression. The review confirms functional hermaphroditism in 27 teleost families in seven orders, predominantly among tropical, marine perciforms in which its diversity of expression is greatest. In families with functional hermaphrodites, the sexual pattern is widespread and often highly variable in expression, even within a single genus or between populations. Based on our understanding of gonadal ontogeny in teleosts and on known phylogenetic interrelationships, the origin of functional hermaphroditism is most parsimoniously explained by a proto-hermaphroditic condition in teleosts and cyclostomes, constituting a hermaphroditic potential for these groups. Exploitation and expression of this potential appear to be a response to a suite of environmental and biological factors, opportunities and constraints that result in the independent appearance of the hermaphroditic option in many different fish lineages.

Groupers are a valuable fishery resource of reef ecosystems and are among those species most vulnerable to fishing pressure because of life history characteristics including longevity, late sexual maturation and aggregation spawning. Despite their economic importance, few grouper fisheries are regularly monitored or managed at the species level, and many are reported to be undergoing declines. To identify major threats to groupers, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List criteria were applied to all 163 species. Red List assessments show that 20 species (12%) risk extinction if current trends continue, and an additional 22 species (13%) are considered to be Near Threatened. The Caribbean Sea, coastal Brazil and Southeast Asia contain a disproportionate number of Threatened species, while numerous poorly documented and Near Threatened species occur in many regions. In all, 30% of all species are considered to be Data Deficient. Given that the major threat is overfishing, accompanied by a general absence and/or poor application of fishery management, the prognosis for restoration and successful conservation of Threatened species is poor. We believe that few refuges remain for recovery and that key biological processes (e.g. spawning aggregations) continue to be compromised by uncontrolled fishing. Mariculture, through hatchery‐rearing, increases production of a few species and contributes to satisfying high market demand, but many such operations depend heavily on wild‐caught juveniles with resultant growth and recruitment overfishing. Better management of fishing and other conservation efforts are urgently needed, and we provide examples of possible actions and constraints.

Species that periodically and predictably congregate on land or in the sea can be extremely vulnerable to overexploitation. Many coral reef fishes form spawning aggregations that are increasingly the target of fishing. Although serious declines are well known for a few species, the extent of this behavior among fishes and the impacts of aggregation fishing are not appreciated widely. To profile aggregating species globally, establish a baseline for future work, and strengthen the case for protection, we (as members of the Society for the Conservation of Reef Fish Aggregations) developed a global database on the occurrence, history, and management of spawning aggregations. We complemented the database with information from interviews with over 300 fishers in Asia and the western Pacific. Sixty-seven species, mainly commercial, in 9 families aggregate to spawn in the 29 countries or territories considered in the database. Ninety percent of aggregation records were from reef pass channels, promontories, and outer reef-slope drop-offs. Multispecies aggregation sites were common, and spawning seasons of most species typically lasted <3 months. The best-documented species in the database, the Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus), has undergone substantial declines in aggregations throughout its range and is now considered threatened. Our findings have important conservation and management implications for aggregating species given that exploitation pressures on them are increasing, there is little effective management, and 79% of those aggregations sufficiently well documented were reported to be in decline. Nonetheless, a few success stories demonstrate the benefits of aggregation management. A major shift in perspective on spawning aggregations of reef fish, from being seen as opportunities for exploitation to acknowledging them as important life-history phenomena in need of management, is urgently needed.