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Druglike small molecules with photoswitchable bioactivity—photopharmaceuticals—allow biologists to perform studies with exquisitely precise and reversible, spatial and temporal control over critical biological systems inaccessible to genetic manipulation. The photoresponsive pharmacophores disclosed have been almost exclusively azobenzenes, which has limited the structural and substituent scope of photopharmacology. More detrimentally, for azobenzene reagents, it is not researchers’ needs for adapted experimental tools, but rather protein binding site sterics, that typically force whether the trans (dark) or cis (lit) isomer is the more bioactive. We now present the rational design of HOTubs, the first hemithioindigo‐based pharmacophores enabling photoswitchable control over endogenous biological activity in cellulo. HOTubs optically control microtubule depolymerisation and cell death in unmodified mammalian cells. Notably, we show how the asymmetry of hemithioindigos allows a priori design of either Z‐ or E‐ (dark‐ or lit)‐toxic antimitotics, whereas the corresponding azobenzenes are exclusively lit‐toxic. We thus demonstrate that hemithioindigos enable an important expansion of the substituent and design scope of photopharmacological interventions for biological systems.

Small molecule inhibitors are prime reagents for studies in microtubule cytoskeleton research, being applicable across a range of biological models and not requiring genetic engineering. However, traditional chemical inhibitors cannot be experimentally applied with spatiotemporal precision suiting the length and time scales inherent to microtubule-dependent cellular processes. We have synthesised photoswitchable paclitaxel-based microtubule stabilisers, whose binding is induced by photoisomerisation to their metastable state. Photoisomerising these reagents in living cells allows optical control over microtubule network integrity and dynamics, cell division and survival, with biological response on the timescale of seconds and spatial precision to the level of individual cells within a population. In primary neurons, they enable regulation of microtubule dynamics resolved to subcellular regions within individual neurites. These azobenzene-based microtubule stabilisers thus enable non-invasive, spatiotemporally precise modulation of the microtubule cytoskeleton in living cells, and promise new possibilities for studying intracellular transport, cell motility, and neuronal physiology.

Background: Hemithioindigo is a promising molecular photoswitch that has only recently been applied as a photoswitchable pharmacophore for control over bioactivity in cellulo. Uniquely, in contrast to other photoswitches that have been applied to biology, the pseudosymmetric hemithioindigo scaffold has allowed the creation of both dark-active and lit-active photopharmaceuticals for the same binding site by a priori design. However, the potency of previous hemithioindigo photopharmaceuticals has not been optimal for their translation to other biological models. Results: Inspired by the structure of tubulin-inhibiting indanones, we created hemithioindigo-based indanone-like tubulin inhibitors (HITubs) and optimised their cellular potency as antimitotic photopharmaceuticals. These HITubs feature reliable and robust visible-light photoswitching and high fatigue resistance. The use of the hemithioindigo scaffold also permitted us to employ a para-hydroxyhemistilbene motif, a structural feature which is denied to most azobenzenes due to the negligibly short lifetimes of their metastable Z-isomers, which proved crucial to enhancing the potency and photoswitchability. The HITubs were ten times more potent than previously reported hemithioindigo photopharmaceutical antimitotics in a series of cell-free and cellular assays, and allowed robust photocontrol over tubulin polymerisation, microtubule (MT) network structure, cell cycle, and cell survival. Conclusions: HITubs represent a powerful addition to the growing toolbox of photopharmaceutical reagents for MT cytoskeleton research. Additionally, as the hemithioindigo scaffold allows photoswitchable bioactivity for substituent patterns inaccessible to the majority of current photopharmaceuticals, wider adoption of the hemithioindigo scaffold may significantly expand the scope of cellular and in vivo targets addressable by photopharmacology.

Here we present GFP-orthogonal optically controlled reagents for reliable and repetitive in cellulo modulation of microtubule dynamics and its dependent processes. Optically controlled reagents ("photopharmaceuticals") have developed into powerful tools for high-spatiotemporal-precision control of endogenous biology, with numerous applications in neuroscience, embryology, and cytoskeleton research. However, the restricted chemical domain of photopharmaceutical scaffolds has constrained their properties and range of applications. Styrylbenzothiazoles are an as-yet unexplored scaffold for photopharmaceuticals, which we now rationally design to feature potent photocontrol, switching microtubule cytoskeleton function off and on according to illumination conditions. We show more broadly that this scaffold is exceptionally chemically and biochemically robust as well as substituent-tolerant, and offers particular advantages for intracellular biology through a range of desirable photopharmaceutical and drug-like properties not accessible to the current classes of photoswitches. We expect that these reagents will find powerful applications enabling robust, high precision, optically controlled cell biological experimentation in cytoskeleton research and beyond. Introduction:Molecular photoswitches have been used to install optical control over a broad range of phenomena, with applications from material sciences 1,2 through to reversible photocontrol of ligand binding affinities 3 and manipulation of diverse cellular processes in chemical biology 4,5 . For studies of temporally-regulated and spatially anisotropic biological systems, particularly those that simultaneously support several cellular functions, photoswitchable inhibitors conceptually enable a range of powerful studies not accessible with other tool systems. [6][7][8] A prime example of such spatiotemporally regulated, multifunctional systems is the microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton. This complex cellular network plays central roles in nearly all directed mechanical processes, such as intracellular transport and cell motility; its crucial function in cell proliferation has also made it a central anticancer drug target. 9-11 Yet, whereas cytoskeleton research typically aims to study a subset of MT-dependent processes that are spatially and/or temporally localised, nearly all MT inhibitors reported as tool compounds for biological research are drugs that are active wherever they are distributed, including at sites and at times where drug activity is not desired. 12 This restricts the scope of applications and utility of these inhibitors for selective research into the various, highly dynamic, anisotropic processes dependent on MTs. 13 The structure of the colchicine site MT inhibitor combretastatin A-4 (CA4; Fig 1a) 14 has recently inspired photoswitchable solutions to the problem of achieving spatiotemporal control over MT inhibition. CA4 is a stilbene whose Z-isomer (cis) binds tubulin, acts as a low nanomolar cytotoxin in cellulo, and reached Phase III trials as an ...

<div> <div> <p>Hemithioindigo is a promising molecular photoswitch that has only recently been applied as a photoswitchable pharmacophore for control over bioactivity in cellulo. Uniquely, in contrast to other photoswitches that have been applied to biology, the pseudosymmetric hemithioindigo scaffold has allowed the creation of both dark-active and lit-active photopharmaceuticals for the same binding site by a priori design. However, the potency of previous hemithioindigo photopharmaceuticals has not been optimal for their translation to other biological models. </p> <p>Inspired by the structure of tubulin-inhibiting indanones, we created hemithioindigo-based indanone-like tubulin-inhibitors (HITubs) and optimised their cellular potency as antimitotic photopharmaceuticals. These HITubs feature reliable and robust visible light photoswitching and high fatigue resistance. The use of the hemithioindigo scaffold also permitted us to employ a para-hydroxy hemistilbene motif – a structural feature which is denied to most azobenzenes due to the negligibly short lifetimes of their metastable Z isomers – which proved crucial to enhancing the potency and photoswitchability. The HITubs are ten times more potent than previously reported hemithioindigo photopharmaceutical antimitotics in a series of cell-free and cellular assays, and allowed robust photocontrol over tubulin polymerisation, microtubule network structure, cell cycle and cell survival.</p><div><div><div> <p>We conclude that HITubs represent a powerful addition to the growing toolbox of photopharmaceutical reagents for microtubule cytoskeleton research. Additionally, as the hemithioindigo scaffold allows photoswitchable bioactivity for substituent patterns inaccessible to the majority of current photopharmaceuticals, wider adoption of the hemithioindigo scaffold may significantly expand the scope cellular and in vivo targets addressable by photopharmacology. </p></div></div></div> </div> </div>

No abstract

Small molecule inhibitors provide a versatile method for studies in microtubule cytoskeleton research, since tubulin is not readily amenable to functional control using genetics. However, traditional chemical inhibitors do not allow spatiotemporally precise applications on the length and time scales appropriate for selectively modulating microtubule-dependent processes. We have synthesised a panel of taxane-based light-responsive microtubule stabilisers, whose tubulin hyperpolymerisation activity can be induced by photoisomerisation to their thermodynamically metastable state. These reagents can be isomerised in live cells, optically controlling microtubule network integrity, cell cycle