Germinal centers (GC) are specialized microenvironments that generate high-affinity antibody-forming (AFCs) and memory B cells. Many B cells undergo apoptosis during B-cell clonal selection in GC. Although the factors that regulate the AFC and GC responses are not precisely understood, it is widely believed that dysregulated AFCs and GCs contribute to autoimmunity. The Mer receptor tyrosine kinase (MerTK or Mer) facilitates macrophage clearance of apoptotic cells. The TAM (Tyro-3, Axl, and Mer) receptors, including Mer, suppress Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and cytokine-mediated inflammatory responses. We report here that tingible body macrophages (TBMϕs) in GC express Mer. Compared to C57BL/6 (B6) controls, Mer deficient (Mer−/−) mice had significantly higher AFC, GC and Th1-skewed antibody (IgG2c) responses against the T-dependent Ag (4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl) acetyl (NP)-chicken gamma globulin (CGG). Mer−/− mice had significantly higher percentage of GC B cells on days 9, 14 and 21 post-immunization compared to B6 controls. Significantly increased numbers of apoptotic cells accumulated in Mer−/− GCs than in B6 GCs, while the number of TBMϕs remained similar in both strains. Our data are the first to demonstrate a critical role for Mer in GC apoptotic cell clearance by TBMϕs and have interesting implications for Mer in the regulation of B cell tolerance operative in the AFC and GC pathways.

Glomerulonephritis is one of the most severe manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus, with considerable morbidity and mortality. There remains a major unmet need for successful management of lupus nephritis. TAM family receptor tyrosine kinases (Mer and Axl) play an important role in the maintenance of immune homeostasis in the kidney. Mer is constitutively expressed in the glomeruli; Axl expression is inducible in glomeruli under inflammatory conditions. To investigate the distinct functions of Axl and Mer in lupus nephritis, we compared the severity of nephrotoxic serum glomerulonephritis in WT, Axl-KO, Mer-KO, and Axl/Mer-KO mice. Mer-KO mice developed severe glomerulonephritis, with significantly decreased survival and increased blood urea nitrogen levels, compared to WT mice given the same treatment. However, nephrotoxic serum-treated Axl-KO mice had significantly increased survival rates and improved renal function as compared to similarly treated WT, Mer-KO, and Axl/Mer-KO mice. Interestingly, mice lacking both Axl and Mer developed kidney inflammation comparable to WT mice. Western blot analysis revealed significantly increased Stat3 phosphorylation and caspase-1 activation in the kidneys of nephritic Mer-KO mice. In contrast, Axl deficient nephrotoxic serum-injected mice showed decreased Akt phosphorylation and Bcl-xl upregulation. Thus, the reciprocal activation of Axl and Mer receptor tyrosine kinases has a major impact on the outcome of renal inflammation.

The Mer receptor tyrosine kinase is both an important mediator of apoptotic cell phagocytosis and a regulator of macrophage and DC cytokine production. Since phenotypically distinguishable macrophages are known to have different functions, we have examined Mer expression of murine splenic macrophages. We also used serum deficient in the Mer ligand, growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6) to define better the role of this Mer ligand in macrophage function. By immunofluorescence staining, we found Mer to be strongly expressed in splenic red pulp, largely on platelets. We also found Mer expression on marginal zone macrophages. Strikingly, all tingible body macrophages bore Mer. In functional phagocytosis assays of apoptotic cells, Gas6 appeared to be the sole ligand for Mer, and this system accounted for about 30% of splenic macrophage phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. Taken together, the expression pattern of mer on macrophage subpopulations in the spleen and its Gas6-dependent role in macrophage phagocytosis suggest an important role for Mer in the modulation of immune responses.

The Mer receptor tyrosine kinase is strongly expressed in the glomerulus. We wondered if this molecule might modify immune-mediated glomerular disease through its functions as a receptor for apoptotic cells and immunoregulatory molecule. Mer-knockout (KO) mice showed decreased survival rate and greatly increased proteinuria and serum urea levels compared to wild type (WT) mice by day 3 after injection of NTS. Their glomeruli were hyperplastic and later became necrotic. While in the glomerulus of WT mice, a significant increase of Mer expression was observed. Apoptotic bodies were evident in NTS-treated Mer-KO kidneys, but not in normal controls. NTStreated Mer-KO mice had massive neutrophil infiltration and inflammatory cytokine expression. Mer thus has a critical role in attenuating renal inflammation, both as a receptor for apoptotic cells and as a molecule that down regulates inflammation.