Pharmacological modulation of cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2R) holds promise for the treatment of numerous conditions, including inflammatory diseases, autoimmune disorders, pain, and cancer. Despite the significance of this receptor, researchers lack reliable tools to address questions concerning the expression and complex mechanism of CB2R signaling, especially in cell-type and tissue-dependent context. Herein, we report for the first time a versatile ligand platform for the modular design of a collection of highly specific CB2R fluorescent probes, used successfully across applications, species and cell types. These include flow cytometry of endogenously expressing cells, real-time confocal microscopy of mouse splenocytes and human macrophages, as well as FRET-based kinetic and equilibrium binding assays. High CB2R specificity was demonstrated by competition experiments in living cells expressing CB2R at native levels. The probes were effectively applied to FACS analysis of microglial cells derived from a mouse model relevant to Alzheimer's disease and to the detection of CB2R in human breast cancer cells.

Cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB 2 ) is a promising therapeutic target for immunological modulation. There is, however, a deficit of knowledge regarding CB 2 signaling and function in human primary immunocompetent cells. We applied an experimental paradigm which closely models the in situ state of human primary leukocytes (PBMC; peripheral blood mononuclear cells) to characterize activation of a number of signaling pathways in response to a CB 2 -selective ligand (HU308). We observed a "lag" phase of unchanged cAMP concentration prior to development of classically expected Gα i -mediated inhibition of cAMP synthesis. Application of G protein inhibitors revealed that this apparent lag was a result of counteraction of Gα i effects by concurrent Gα s activation. Monitoring downstream signaling events showed that activation of p38 was mediated by Gα i , whereas ERK1/2 and Akt phosphorylation were mediated by Gα i -coupled βγ. Activation of CREB integrated multiple components; Gα s and βγ mediated ∼85% of the response, while ∼15% was attributed to Gα i . Responses to HU308 had an important functional outcomesecretion of interleukins 6 (IL-6) and 10 (IL-10). IL-2, IL-4, IL-12, IL-13, IL-17A, MIP-1α, and TNF-α were unaffected. IL-6/IL-10 induction had a similar G protein coupling profile to CREB activation. All response potencies were consistent with that expected for HU308 acting via CB 2 . Additionally, signaling and functional effects were completely blocked by a CB 2 -selective inverse agonist, giving additional evidence for CB 2 involvement. This work expands the current paradigm regarding cannabinoid immunomodulation and reinforces the potential utility of CB 2 ligands as immunomodulatory therapeutics.

Cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) is predominantly distributed in immune tissues and cells and is a promising therapeutic target for modulating inflammation. In this study we designed and synthesised a series of 2,4,6-trisubstituted 1,3,5-triazines with piperazinylalkyl or 1,2-diethoxyethane (PEG2) chains as CB2 agonists, all of which were predicted to be considerably more polar than typical cannabinoid ligands. In this series, we found that triazines containing an adamantanyl group were conducive to CB2 binding whereas those with a cyclopentyl group were not. Although the covalent attachment of a PEG2 linker to the adamantyl triazines resulted in a decrease in binding affinity, some of the ligands produced very interesting hCB2 signalling profiles. Six compounds with notable hCB2 orthosteric binding were functionally characterised in three pathways; internalisation, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and ERK phosphorylation (pERK). These were predominantly confirmed to be hCB2 agonists, and upon comparison to a reference ligand (CP 55,940), four compounds exhibited signalling bias. Triazines 14 (UOSD017) and 15 were biased towards internalisation over cAMP and pERK, and 7 was biased away from pERK activation relative to cAMP and internalisation. Intriguingly, the triazine with an amino-PEG2-piperazinyl linker (13 [UOSD008]) was identified to be a mixed agonist/inverse agonist, exhibiting apparent neutral antagonism in the internalisation pathway, transient inverse agonism in the cAMP pathway and weak partial agonism in the pERK pathway. Both the cAMP and pERK signalling were pertussis toxin (PTX) sensitive, implying that 13 is acting as both a weak agonist and inverse agonist at CB2 via Gαi/o. Compound 10 (UOSD015) acted as a balanced high intrinsic efficacy agonist with the potential to produce greater hCB2-mediated efficacy than reference ligand CP 55,940. As 10 includes a Boc-protected PEG2 moiety it is also a promising candidate for further modification, for example with a secondary reporter or fluorophore. The highest affinity compound in this set of relatively polar hCB2 ligands was compound 16, which acted as a slightly partial balanced agonist in comparison with CP 55,940. The ligands characterised here may therefore exhibit unique functional properties in vivo and have the potential to be valuable in the future development of CB2-directed therapeutics.

Cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2R) is a fundamental part of the endocannabinoid signaling system (eCB system), and is known to play an important role in tissue injury, inflammation, cancer and pain. In stark contrast to its significance, the underlying signaling mechanisms and tissue expression profiles are poorly understood. Due to its low expression in healthy tissue and lack of reliable chemical tools, CB2R visualization in live cells remains uncharted. Here we report the development of a drug derived toolbox of highly potent, CB2Rselective fluorescent probes based on reverse design. Extensive validation in several applications such as CB2R detection in flow cytometry and time-resolved imaging, and the development of a novel fluorescent-based TR-FRET assay to generate kinetic and equilibrium binding data demonstrate the high versatility of our toolbox. These probes are the first to preserve affinity and efficacy in both human and mouse CB2R, a crucial aspect for preclinical translatability, and to enable imaging of CB2R internalization in living cells using confocal microscopy.

Cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) is a promising therapeutic target for immunological modulation.There is, however, a deficit of knowledge regarding CB2 signaling and function in human primary immunocompetent cells. We applied an experimental paradigm which closely models the in situ state of human primary leukocytes (PBMC; peripheral blood mononuclear cells) to characterize activation of a number of signaling pathways in response to a CB2-selective ligand (HU308). We observed a "lag" phase of unchanged cAMP concentration prior to development of classically-expected Gαi-mediated inhibition of cAMP synthesis. Application of G protein inhibitors revealed that this apparent lag was a result of counteraction of Gαi effects by concurrent Gαs activation. Monitoring downstream signaling events, activation of p38 was mediated by Gαi whereas ERK1/2 and Akt phosphorylation were mediated by Gαi-coupled βγ.Activation of CREB integrated multiple components; Gαs and βγ mediated ~85% of the response, while ~15% was attributed to Gαi. Responses to HU308 had an important functional outcome -secretion of interleukins 6 (IL-6) and 10 (IL-10). IL-2, IL-4, IL-12, IL-13, IL-17A, MIP-1α, and TNF-α were unaffected. IL-6/IL-10 induction had a similar G protein coupling profile to CREB activation. All response potencies were consistent with that expected for HU308 acting via CB2. Additionally, signaling and functional effects were completely blocked by a CB2selective inverse agonist, giving additional evidence for CB2 involvement. This work expands the current paradigm regarding cannabinoid immunomodulation and reinforces the potential utility of CB2 ligands as immunomodulatory therapeutics.Keywords: cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2), G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), signaling, leukocytes, interleukin 6, interleukin 10 Significance statementCannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) is a G protein-coupled receptor which plays a complex role in immunomodulation and is a promising target in a range of disorders with immune system involvement. However, to date the majority of the studies in this field have been performed on cell lines, rodent models, or stimulated primary cells. Here we provide a detailed account of CB2-mediated signaling in primary human immune cells under conditions which closely mimic their in vivo state. We reveal a complex signaling system involving an unprecedented CB2 signaling pathway and leading to immunomodulatory functional outcomes. This work provides not only a critical foundation impacting CB2-targeted drug discovery, but reveals important wider considerations for GPCR signaling studies and model validity.

Cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2R) is a fundamental part of the endocannabinoid signaling system (eCB system), and is known to play an important role in tissue injury, inflammation, cancer and pain. In stark contrast to its significance, the underlying signaling mechanisms and tissue expression profiles are poorly understood. Due to its low expression in healthy tissue and lack of reliable chemical tools, CB2R visualization in live cells remains uncharted. Here we report the development of a drug derived toolbox of highly potent, CB2Rselective fluorescent probes based on reverse design. Extensive validation in several applications such as CB2R detection in flow cytometry and time-resolved imaging, and the development of a novel fluorescent-based TR-FRET assay to generate kinetic and equilibrium binding data demonstrate the high versatility of our toolbox. These probes are the first to preserve affinity and efficacy in both human and mouse CB2R, a crucial aspect for preclinical translatability, and to enable imaging of CB2R internalization in living cells using confocal microscopy.

Pharmacological modulation of cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB₂R) holds promise for the treatment of numerous conditions, including inflammatory diseases, autoimmune disorders, pain, and cancer. Despite the significance of this receptor, researchers lack reliable tools to address questions concerning the expression and complex mechanism of CB₂R signaling, especially in cell-type and tissue-dependent context. Herein, we report for the first time a versatile ligand platform for the modular design of a collection of highly specific CB₂R fluorescent probes, used successfully across applications, species and cell types. These include flow cytometry of endogenously expressing cells, real-time confocal microscopy of mouse splenocytes and human macrophages, as well as FRET-based kinetic and equilibrium binding assays. High CB₂R specificity was demonstrated by competition experiments in living cells expressing CB₂R at native levels. The probes were effectively applied to FACS analysis of microglial cells derived from a mouse model relevant to Alzheimer’s disease and to the detection of CB₂R in human breast cancer cells.

Pharmacological modulation of cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB₂R) holds promise for the treatment of numerous conditions, including inflammatory diseases, autoimmune disorders, pain, and cancer. Despite the significance of this receptor, researchers lack reliable tools to address questions concerning the expression and complex mechanism of CB₂R signaling, especially in cell-type and tissue-dependent context. Herein, we report for the first time a versatile ligand platform for the modular design of a collection of highly specific CB₂R fluorescent probes, used successfully across applications, species and cell types. These include flow cytometry of endogenously expressing cells, real-time confocal microscopy of mouse splenocytes and human macrophages, as well as FRET-based kinetic and equilibrium binding assays. High CB₂R specificity was demonstrated by competition experiments in living cells expressing CB₂R at native levels. The probes were effectively applied to FACS analysis of microglial cells derived from a mouse model relevant to Alzheimer’s disease and to the detection of CB₂R in human breast cancer cells.