Higher serum phosphorus levels are associated with mortality and cardiovascular events, both in healthy individuals and those with chronic kidney disease. Owing to the increasing westernization of eating habits, a decrease in rice consumption and an increase in the intake of bread and noodle products were observed in Japan. This cross-sectional study investigated the influence of staple food (rice, bread, and noodle) consumption patterns on the serum levels of phosphorus and phosphate-regulating factors in 103 healthy young participants. Fasting blood and 24-h urine samples were collected; data about dietary habits were collected using a brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire. Cluster analysis was conducted to assess subgroups classified according to staple food consumption patterns. Serum levels of phosphorus and phosphate-regulating factors did not significantly differ between subgroups classified based on the frequency of rice or bread consumption. However, the serum levels of phosphorus and fibroblast growth factor 23 were more significantly elevated in the higher than in the lower noodle consumption frequency subgroup. Cluster analysis defined three clusters, and the serum phosphorus levels in the high-noodle cluster were significantly higher than that in the high-bread and high-rice clusters. A high consumption of noodles was associated with elevated serum phosphorus levels. The trial was registered in the University Hospital Medical Information Network (UMIN) Center system (The name of the trial register: Hidekazu Arai, and UMIN accession number: UMIN000034352).
ProtocolThe participants received three examinations within 1 week : 1) questionnaires about habitual diet (brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire : BDHQ), 2) blood sampling in the morning fasting, and 3) anthropometric measurements. They were instructed to live normally throughout the study period, without any restrictions on physical activity and dietary intake.Brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire (BDHQ)Habitual diet during the preceding month was assessed using a BDHQ (16, 17). Macronutrient intakes were expressed as a ratio to the total energy intake. Phosphorus and calcium intakes were energy -adjusted by using the energy density model and expressed as density (mg per 1000 kcal energy intake). Phosphorus intakes from different food groupsThe BDHQ included questions about the frequency of consumption of 58 foods and beverages. Phosphorus intakes were calculated by using a commercial computer algorithm for the BDHQ, which was based primarily on the Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan (18). The phosphorus intakes were grouped into 13 food groups (Fish and shellfish,
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