Wearable sensors have gained popularity over the years since they offer constant and real-time physiological information about the human body. Wearable sensors have been applied in a variety of ways in clinical settings to monitor health conditions. These technologies require energy sources to carry out their projected functionalities. In this paper, we review the main energy sources used to power wearable sensors. These energy sources include batteries, solar cells, biofuel cells, supercapacitors, thermoelectric generators, piezoelectric and triboelectric generators, and radio frequency (RF) energy harvesters. Additionally, we discuss wireless power transfer and some hybrids of the above technologies. The advantages and drawbacks of each technology are considered along with the system components and attributes that make these devices function effectively. The objective of this review is to inform researchers about the latest developments in this field and present future research opportunities.
Cost-effective, rapid, and sensitive detection of SARS-CoV-2, in high-throughput, is crucial in controlling the COVID-19 epidemic. In this study, we proposed a vertical microcavity and localized surface plasmon resonance hybrid biosensor for SARS-CoV-2 detection in artificial saliva and assessed its efficacy. The proposed biosensor monitors the valley shifts in the reflectance spectrum, as induced by changes in the refractive index within the proximity of the sensor surface. A low-cost and fast method was developed to form nanoporous gold (NPG) with different surface morphologies on the vertical microcavity wafer, followed by immobilization with the SARS-CoV-2 antibody for capturing the virus. Modeling and simulation were conducted to optimize the microcavity structure and the NPG parameters. Simulation results revealed that NPG-deposited sensors performed better in resonance quality and in sensitivity compared to gold-deposited and pure microcavity sensors. The experiment confirmed the effect of NPG surface morphology on the biosensor sensitivity as demonstrated by simulation. Pre-clinical validation revealed that 40% porosity led to the highest sensitivity for SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus at 319 copies/mL in artificial saliva. The proposed automatic biosensing system delivered the results of 100 samples within 30 min, demonstrating its potential for on-site coronavirus detection with sufficient sensitivity.
thus far, very few stretchable [7] power solutions have been developed that are biocompatible or transparent, [8,9] as these properties are difficult to simultaneously realize in a single solution. Because skin-interfaced electronics are one of the main types of wearable microsystems, power solutions for skin-interfaced electronics [10] have motivated the development of suitable power replacements. Supercapacitors are a promising power solution candidate for portable and wearable devices, particularly for skininterfaced devices, [11] as they have excellent recharge rate capabilities and high power densities. [12] In this work, we describe a new microfabrication approach for stretchable, biocompatible, flexible, and transparent supercapacitors, based upon polypyrrole (PPY), sodium alginate (SA), and a metal mesh. Our proposed structure combines the following parts. First, we utilized a transparent and stretchable solid-state supercapacitor by utilizing PPY as a positive material, due to its transparency, high current density capability, and biocompatibility. In addition, we used SA and Na 2 SO 4 as electrolytes, as these materials are transparent, stable, biocompatible, and safe (it can be as a food additive), and exhibit fast charging and discharging rates. Lastly, we used metal templates to precisely fabricate electrodes. The metal mesh in this work consists of an orderly and uniform nanoscale porous structure. It differs from previously reported metal mesh structures. The later consists of random pores based on a specific tree leaf. [13] The leaf venation has boughs and is ramose, leading to imbalance and non-stretchability. By precisely controlling the pore density, pore architecture, and pore size distribution of the metal mesh, an increase in the stretchability and power density of the supercapacitors, as well as transmittance of the mesh metal, reached 75% when the porous diameter was 500 nm. [14] Furthermore, the mass production of a metal mesh may be easier than a tree leaf-based process. The solid-state supercapacitor was also based upon a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) [15] substrate, as this material exhibits stable electrochemical performance, [16] minimal thermal shrinkage, good transparency, good biocompatibility, and good flexibility, [17] thus broadening the range of potential of this material for industrial and medical applications. Results and Discussion Supercapacitor Fabrication and PropertiesThe metal mesh template was based on anodic aluminum oxide (AAO), [18] due to its highly ordered and high specific surface Recent advances in wearable bioelectronics have driven various healthcare applications, such as the monitoring, sensing, and treating of various diseases. However, unsustainable batteries and toxic power solutions hinder their use at the skin interface or in vivo. As a promising power solution, supercapacitors have attracted the attention of researchers. However, there are still several drawbacks, such as the transparency, stretchability, biocompatibility, and flexibility of these materi...
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