The cytokine transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) converts naïve T cells into regulatory T (Treg) cells that prevent autoimmunity. However, in the presence of interleukin-6 (IL-6), TGF-beta has also been found to promote the differentiation of naïve T lymphocytes into proinflammatory IL-17 cytokine-producing T helper 17 (T(H)17) cells, which promote autoimmunity and inflammation. This raises the question of how TGF-beta can generate such distinct outcomes. We identified the vitamin A metabolite retinoic acid as a key regulator of TGF-beta-dependent immune responses, capable of inhibiting the IL-6-driven induction of proinflammatory T(H)17 cells and promoting anti-inflammatory Treg cell differentiation. These findings indicate that a common metabolite can regulate the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory immunity.

TCRαβ thymocytes differentiate to either CD8αβ cytotoxic T lymphocytes or CD4+ T helper cells. This functional dichotomy is controlled by key transcription factors, including the T helper master regulator, ThPOK, which suppresses the cytolytic program in MHC class II-restricted CD4+ thymocytes. ThPOK continues to repress CD8-lineage genes in mature CD4+ T cells, even as they differentiate to T helper effector subsets. Here we show that the T helper-fate was not fixed and that mature antigen-stimulated CD4+ T cells could terminate Thpok expression and reactivate CD8-lineage genes. This unexpected plasticity resulted in the post-thymic termination of the T helper-program and the functional differentiation of distinct MHC class II-restricted CD4+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes.

Abstract4-1BB and 4-1BBL can control adaptive immunity, but we demonstrated that their interaction also suppressed myelopoiesis. 4-1BBL was found to be expressed on hematopoietic stem cells, and differentiating common myeloid (CMPs) and granulocyte-macrophage progenitors (GMPs), and 4-1BB was inducible on activated myeloid progenitors. Steady state numbers of GMPs, myeloidlineage cells, and mature dendritic cells, were elevated in 4-1BB-and 4-1BBL-deficient mice, indicative of a negative functional role, and this was confirmed in bone marrow chimeras and in vitro where the absence of 4-1BB/4-1BBL interactions led to enhanced differentiation into dendritic cell lineages. The regulatory activity was mediated through 4-1BBL, with binding by 4-1BB inhibiting differentiation of myeloid progenitors. Thus, 4-1BB and 4-1BBL have a novel function in limiting myelopoiesis and dendritic cell development.

Members of the TNFR family are thought to deliver costimulatory signals to T cells and modulate their function and survival. In this study, we compare the role of two closely related TNFR family molecules, OX40 and 4-1BB, in generating effector CD8 T cells to Ag delivered by adenovirus. OX40 and 4-1BB were both induced on responding naive CD8 T cells, but 4-1BB exhibited faster and more sustained kinetics than OX40. OX40-deficient CD8 T cells initially expanded normally; however, their accumulation and survival at late times in the primary response was significantly impaired. In contrast, 4-1BB-deficient CD8 T cells displayed hyperresponsiveness, expanding more than wild-type cells. The 4-1BB-deficient CD8 T cells also showed enhanced maturation attributes, whereas OX40-deficient CD8 T cells had multiple defects in the expression of effector cell surface markers, the synthesis of cytokines, and in cytotoxic activity. These results suggest that, in contrast to current ideas, OX40 and 4-1BB can have a clear functional dichotomy in modulating effector CD8 T cell responses. OX40 can positively regulate effector function and late accumulation/survival, whereas 4-1BB can initially operate in a negative manner to limit primary CD8 responses.

CpG DNA has been recognized as a powerful stimulant of dendritic cells (DCs). In this study, we demonstrate that CpG DNA inhibits spontaneous apoptosis of DCs. CpG DNA up-regulated cellular inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (cIAPs) as well as Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL, but down-regulated active caspase-3. Although CpG DNA activated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, extracellular signal-related kinase, and phosphatidylinositide-3′-OH kinase (PI3K), only the blocking of PI3K inhibited the CpG DNA-induced DC survival. Moreover, while the expression of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL depends on both PI3K and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, the up-regulation of cIAPs and the down-regulation of active caspase-3 by CpG DNA require PI3K activation, suggesting PI3K-dependent up-regulation of cIAPs in the antiapoptotic activity of CpG DNA in DCs. This study indicates that CpG DNA provides a survival signal to DCs, which might be one of mechanisms by which bacterial DNA stimulates and maintains the innate immune responses.

Mucosal dendritic cells (DCs) in the intestine acquire the unique capacity to produce retinoic acid (RA), a vitamin A metabolite that induces gut tropism and regulates the functional differentiation of the T cells they prime. Here we identified a stromal cell (SC) population in the intestinal lamina propria (LP), which is capable of inducing RA production in DCs in a RA- and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-dependent fashion. Unlike DCs, LP SCs constitutively expressed the enzymatic machinery to produce RA even in the absence of dietary vitamin A but were not able to do so in germ-free mice implying regulation by microbiota. Interestingly, DCs promoted GM-CSF production by the SCs indicating a two-way crosstalk between both cell types. Furthermore, RA-producing LP SCs and intestinal DCs localized closely in vivo suggesting that the interactions between both cell types might play an important role on the functional education of migratory DCs and therefore in the regulation of immune responses towards oral and commensal antigens.

The presence of immune memory at pathogen entry sites is a prerequisite for protection. Nevertheless, the mechanisms that warrant immunity at peripheral interfaces are not understood. Here we show that the non-classical MHC class I molecule, the thymus leukemia antigen (TL), induced on dendritic cells interacting with CD8αα on activated CD8αβ+T cells, mediated affinity-based selection of memory precursor cells. Furthermore, constitutive expression of TL on epithelial cells led to continued selection of mature CD8αβ memory T cells. The TL-CD8αα-driven memory process was essential for the generation of memory CD8αβ T cells in the intestine and accumulation of highly antigen sensitive CD8αβ memory T cells that form the first line of defense at the largest entry port for pathogens.

CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) are promising immunomodulatory agents for treating human diseases and vaccine development. Phosphodiester CpG ODNs were demonstrated to have poor immunostimulatory potentials for cytokine production. However, the conjugation of consecutive deoxyriboguanosine residues, called a dG run, at the 3′ terminus of phosphodiester CpG ODNs significantly enhanced TNF-α and IL-12 production from mouse splenic dendritic cells (DCs). The optimal induction of cytokine production was achieved by the addition of a hexameric dG (dG6) run. In contrast, the existence of a dG6 run either at the 5′ terminus of phosphodiester CpG ODNs or at the 3′ terminus of phosphorothioate CpG ODNs diminished CpG-mediated cytokine induction, suggesting that the effects of a dG run depend on its location and the chemical property of the ODN backbone, respectively. In addition, we provided the evidence that the conjugation of a dG6 run caused the structural transformation of CpG ODNs, which facilitates their targeting into mouse APCs such as splenic DCs, B cells, and peritoneal macrophages with a scavenger receptor type A ligand specificity. Among primary APCs, DCs were the most potent for CpG ODN-mediated IL-12 production. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the conjugation of a dG6 run into the 3′ terminus of phosphodiester CpG ODNs was crucial for their ability to generate Th1 immunity in vivo. Thus, the conjugation of a dG6 run into phosphodiester CpG ODNs would be an alternative way to optimize their immunostimulatory potentials in vitro and in vivo.