During the rapid economic growth of Thailand that started in the latter half of the 1980s, income inequality increased very rapidly. At the same time, the industrial sector absorbed underemployed labour force in rural areas in the early 1990s. It was expected, therefore, that income inequality would decrease soon in Thailand. However, statistical indicators do not show clear and consistent downward trends in the mid-1990s. We examine whether Thailand has passed the turning point of the Kuznets' curve. We generalize the Kuznets' hypothesis by redefining the agricultural sector as low-productivity sector and the industrial sector as highproductivity sector. Consequently, the Kuznets' curve does not necessarily appear only once but can appear several times when new high-productivity industries appear. With this idea we will argue two points. One is that income inequality increased rapidly in the latter half of the 1980s because of the emergence of export-oriented manufacturing industries established by foreign direct investment (FDI). The second contention is that income inequality did not decrease clearly in the 1990s, even though the labour market might have passed the turning point, because the Thai economy shifted to domestic-orientation, which led to the currency crisis in 1997.
Background
Previous studies have suggested that exposures to heavy metals (arsenic, cadmium, lead, and selenium) may be associated with differences in blood pressure. However, the findings of these studies have been inconsistent. This study was performed to examine the associations between urinary heavy metal concentrations and blood pressure among residents of four Asian countries (Bangladesh, Indonesia, Nepal, and Vietnam).
Methods
This cross-sectional study examined 1899 adults in four Asian countries. Urinary concentrations of heavy metals were measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. A questionnaire survey was administered regarding individual characteristics. Anthropometric measurements (height and weight) were performed. Systolic and diastolic blood pressures were measured after a short rest. Multiple linear regression models were applied to investigate associations between urinary heavy metal concentrations and blood pressure after adjustments for age, sex, and body mass index.
Results
The geometric means of the urinary concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and selenium were 84.6, 0.885, 2.09, and 16.5 μg/g creatinine, respectively. The urinary arsenic concentrations were slightly higher than those typically reported in non-polluted populations, while urinary cadmium, lead, and selenium concentrations were equivalent or slightly lower. The urinary lead concentrations were positively associated with both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, but urinary selenium concentrations were negatively associated with them.
Conclusions
Variations in the urinary concentrations of lead and selenium were associated with blood pressure at low levels of exposure/intake.
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