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This study describes the development and evaluation of the Self-Report Altruism Scale Distinguished by the Recipient (SRAS-DR). The relationship between an actor and a recipient is important for evolutionary studies of altruistic behavior. However, the existing scale for Japanese undergraduates does not distinguish recipients of altruistic behaviors. We developed a new self-report altruism scale based on an evolutionary viewpoint. In Study 1, undergraduate students described their altruistic behaviors in daily life, which we classified according to the recipients (family members, friends or acquaintances and strangers). Then we chose 21 items (7 items for each recipient class) to construct the SRAS-DR by using exploratory factor analyses. In Study 2, we investigated validity and reliability of the scale. The scores were significantly correlated with other relevant scales as well as with behavioral indicators. Test-retest reliability was high. These results indicate that the SRAS-DR has acceptable reliability and validity, and can be used in evolutionary studies of human altruism.

Evolutionary studies on human altruism toward strangers have proposed two motivations as proximate mechanisms for this behavior. The first involves the positive motivations inherent in expecting that actors will benefit in the long term by building a good reputation even if they accrue immediate costs for their altruistic behavior. The second involves the negative motivations inherent in avoiding identification as a norm violator. The presence of a mirror has been reported to enhance self-consciousness and evoke negative affect in response to an observer’s eyes. We conducted the dictator game with and without a mirror. Participants were asked to complete a post-experiment questionnaire designed to investigate what they were thinking when they decided the amount of money to offer the recipient and to explore their perceptions of the experimental situation. Although the negative affect elicited by an observer’s eyes was stronger under the mirror condition, the presence of the mirror did not increase the amount of money offered in the game.

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