The effects of frying duration, frying temperature and concentration of sodium chloride on the formation of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters and glycidyl esters (GEs) of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm olein during deep-fat frying (at 160°C and 180°C) of potato chips (0%, 1%, 3% and 5% NaCl) for 100min/d for five consecutive days in eight systems were compared in this study. All oil samples collected after each frying cycle were analyzed for 3-MCPD esters, GEs, free fatty acid (FFA) contents, specific extinction at 232 and 268 nm (K and K), p-anisidine value (pAV), and fatty acid composition. The 3-MCPD ester trend was decreasing when the frying duration increased, whereas the trend was increasing when frying temperature and concentration of NaCl increased. The GEs trend was increasing when the frying temperature, frying duration and concentration of NaCl increased. All of the oil qualities were within the safety limit.
The effects of selected antioxidants on the changes of the quality properties and 3monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters and glycidyl ester (GE) contents in refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD) palm olein during the deep-fat frying (at 180 °C) of potato chips were studied. The frying duration was 100 min in five antioxidant systems for three consecutive days. The antioxidants used were butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), oleoresin rosemary and sage extract. Both the frying oil and the oil extracted from the fried potato chips were analyzed for the 3-MCPD esters and GE content, acylglycerol composition, free fatty acid (FFA) content, p-anisidine value (p-AV), and specific extinction coefficient K232 and K268. Generally, TBHQ and oleoresin rosemary showed significantly lower levels of 3-MCPD esters and GE. The order of effectiveness of the selected antioxidants in the frying oil and fried potato chips was BHT < BHA < sage extract < oleoresin rosemary < TBHQ. Antioxidants reduce the 3-MCPD esters and GE levels by inhibiting the formation of radical intermediates.
The aim of this study was to determine the best parameter for extracting phenolic-enriched kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) seeds by a pulsed ultrasonic-assisted extraction. The antioxidant activities of ultrasonic-assisted kenaf seed extracts (KSE) were determined by a 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging capacity assay, 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging assay, β-carotene bleaching inhibition assay, and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. Total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) evaluations were carried out to determine the phenolic and flavonoid contents in KSE. The KSE from the best extraction parameter was then subjected to high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to quantify the phenolic compounds. The optimised extraction condition employed 80% ethanol for 15 min, with the highest values determined for the DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assay. KSE contained mainly tannic acid (2302.20 mg/100 g extract) and sinapic acid (1198.22 mg/100 g extract), which can be used as alternative antioxidants in the food industry.
The quality of a baked product can be greatly affected by the choice of shortening. However, a palm-based shortening can be contaminated by monochlropropanol (MCPD) ester and glycidyl ester (GE) as it is a product derived from a refined palm oil. MCPD esters and GE can be transferred into a baked product through further processing. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of different palm-based shortening on the qualities of cake, MCPD esters and GE content during a conventional baking system. Commercial margarine, palm olein, palm mid-fraction, and soft and hard stearin were used in a cake recipe, baked at different baking temperatures (160, 180 and 200 °C) for 20 min. First, the quality characteristics of baked cake (moisture content, texture profile and surface color) was analysed. Second, the MCPD esters and GE content, acylglycerol composition and oxidation status of the fats portion from baked cake were investigated. The results showed soft stearin, palm olein and margarine delivered a similar volume, surface color, and texture to the finished product. An elevated baking temperature was detrimental to the quality characteristics of all the studied samples and delivered a finished product with extra hardness and low moisture. The free fatty acid content and specific extinction value showed that the fat portions were significantly oxidized at high baking temperatures. In addition, 2-and 3-MCPD esters were stable during baking, but GE showed that it was vulnerable to the heating process and constantly degrades when the baking temperature increased. In short, the finished products were in better quality (physical and texture properties) when lower baking temperature (160 °C) was used, especially when margarine, soft stearin and palm olein were used as the shortening. Hard stearin naturally contains lower MCPD esters and GE, but it was not able to provide similar qualities as compared to margarine sample.
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