No abstract

Oxidative stress has been implicated in the etiology of age-related muscle loss (sarcopenia). However, the underlying mechanisms by which oxidative stress contributes to sarcopenia have not been thoroughly investigated. To directly examine the role of chronic oxidative stress in vivo, we used a mouse model that lacks the antioxidant enzyme CuZnSOD (Sod1). Sod1(-/-) mice are characterized by high levels of oxidative damage and an acceleration of sarcopenia. In the present study, we demonstrate that muscle atrophy in Sod1(-/-) mice is accompanied by a progressive decline in mitochondrial bioenergetic function and an elevation of mitochondrial generation of reactive oxygen species. In addition, Sod1(-/-) muscle exhibits a more rapid induction of mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis and loss of myonuclei. Furthermore, aged Sod1(-/-) mice show a striking increase in muscle mitochondrial content near the neuromuscular junctions (NMJs). Despite the increase in content, the function of mitochondria is significantly impaired, with increased denervated NMJs and fragmentation of acetylcholine receptors. As a consequence, contractile force in aged Sod1(-/-) muscles is greatly diminished. Collectively, we show that Sod1(-/-) mice display characteristics of normal aging muscle in an accelerated manner and propose that the superoxide-induced NMJ degeneration and mitochondrial dysfunction are potential mechanisms of sarcopenia.

Van Remmen H. Denervation-induced skeletal muscle atrophy is associated with increased mitochondrial ROS production. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 293: R1159-R1168, 2007. First published June 20, 2007; doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00767.2006.-Reactive oxygen species (ROS), especially mitochondrial ROS, are postulated to play a significant role in muscle atrophy. We report a dramatic increase in mitochondrial ROS generation in three conditions associated with muscle atrophy: in aging, in mice lacking CuZn-SOD (Sod1 Ϫ/Ϫ ), and in the neurodegenerative disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). ROS generation in muscle mitochondria is nearly threefold higher in 28-to 32-mo-old than in 10-mo-old mice and is associated with a 30% loss in gastrocnemius mass. In Sod1 Ϫ/Ϫ mice, muscle mitochondrial ROS production is increased Ͼ100% in 20-mo compared with 5-mo-old mice along with a Ͼ50% loss in muscle mass. ALS G93A mutant mice show a 75% loss of muscle mass during disease progression and up to 12-fold higher muscle mitochondrial ROS generation. In a second ALS mutant model, H46RH48Q mice, ROS production is approximately fourfold higher than in control mice and is associated with a less dramatic loss (30%) in muscle mass. Thus ROS production is strongly correlated with the extent of muscle atrophy in these models. Because each of the models of muscle atrophy studied are associated to some degree with a loss of innervation, we were interested in determining whether denervation plays a role in ROS generation in muscle mitochondria isolated from hindlimb muscle following surgical sciatic nerve transection. Seven days postdenervation, muscle mitochondrial ROS production increased nearly 30-fold. We conclude that enhanced generation of mitochondrial ROS may be a common factor in the mechanism underlying denervation-induced atrophy. mitochondria; reactive oxygen species; amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; copper, zinc superoxide dismutase SKELETAL MUSCLE ATROPHY is a debilitating phenotype that is associated with a variety of conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases, cancer cachexia, and immobilization or disuse (49,56,76,77). Muscle atrophy is also an unavoidable consequence of normal human aging (43, 68). Despite the importance and impact of losing muscle mass, the biochemical and molecular mechanisms leading to muscle atrophy are still poorly understood. Several potential contributing factors in loss of muscle mass have been identified, including neuromuscular alterations, changes in protein synthesis and degradation, and loss of fibers due to apoptosis (15,52,58). Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction have also been implicated in sarcopenia (27, 62), hindlimb unloading (3, 46, 65), and in atrophic mouse muscle from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) transgenic mice (54). Because mitochondria are an important source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells, we were interested in delineating the role of muscle mitochondrial ROS generation in muscle atrophy. In this study, we measured mitochondrial ROS prod...

Age-related loss of muscle mass and function greatly affects quality of life in the elderly population. Several hypotheses have been proposed but accumulating evidence point to alterations in neuromuscular system during aging as a key event that leads to functional denervation, muscle wasting, and weakness. Over the past few decades, age-associated degeneration of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) and its components have been well documented. With advancing age, pre-terminal portions of motor axons exhibit regions of abnormal thinning, distension, and sprouting whereas postsynaptic endplates decrease in size, reduce in number, length, and density of postsynaptic folds. Although the exact underlying mechanisms are still lacking, recent studies provided direct evidence that age-associated increase in oxidative stress plays a crucial role in NMJ degeneration and progression of sarcopenia. Homozygous deletion of an important antioxidant enzyme, Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD, SOD1) leads to acceleration of agedependent muscle atrophy, with a significant NMJ degeneration similar to that seen in old wild type sarcopenic animals. In this short review, we briefly summarize the current understanding of some of the cellular and molecular changes in the NMJ during aging and suggest a role for oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in age-related changes in the maintenance of neuromuscular innervation.

Genetic manipulations of Mn superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), SOD2 expression have demonstrated that altering the level of MnSOD activity is critical for cellular function and life span in invertebrates. In mammals, Sod2 homozygous knockout mice die shortly after birth, and alterations of MnSOD levels are correlated with changes in oxidative damage and in the generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species. In this study, we directly tested the effects of overexpressing MnSOD in young (4-6 months) and old (26-28 months) mice on mitochondrial function, levels of oxidative damage or stress, life span, and end-of-life pathology. Our data show that an approximately twofold overexpression of MnSOD throughout life in mice resulted in decreased lipid peroxidation, increased resistance against paraquat-induced oxidative stress, and decreased age-related decline in mitochondrial ATP production. However, this change in MnSOD expression did not alter either life span or age-related pathology.