Nuclear hormone receptors regulate diverse metabolic pathways and the orphan nuclear receptor LRH-1 (NR5A2) regulates bile acid biosynthesis1,2. Structural studies have identified phospholipids as potential LRH-1 ligands3–5, but their functional relevance is unclear. Here we show that an unusual phosphatidylcholine species with two saturated 12 carbon fatty acid acyl side chains (dilauroyl phosphatidylcholine, DLPC) is an LRH-1 agonist ligand in vitro. DLPC treatment induces bile acid biosynthetic enzymes in mouse liver, increases bile acid levels, and lowers hepatic triglycerides and serum glucose. DLPC treatment also decreases hepatic steatosis and improves glucose homeostasis in two mouse models of insulin resistance. Both the antidiabetic and lipotropic effects are lost in liver specific Lrh-1 knockouts. These findings identify an LRH-1 dependent phosphatidylcholine signaling pathway that regulates bile acid metabolism and glucose homeostasis.

Mutations in several genes encoding transcription factors of the hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF) cascade are associated with maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY), a monogenic form of early-onset diabetes mellitus. The ability of the orphan nuclear receptor small heterodimer partner (SHP, NR0B2) to modulate the transcriptional activity of MODY1 protein, the nuclear receptor HNF-4␣, suggested SHP as a candidate MODY gene. We screened 173 unrelated Japanese subjects with earlyonset diabetes for mutations in this gene and found five different mutations (H53fsdel10, L98fsdel9insAC, R34X, A195S, and R213C) in 6 subjects as well as one apparent polymorphism (R216H), all present in the heterozygous state. Interestingly, all of the subjects with the mutations were mildly or moderately obese at onset of diabetes, and analysis of the lineages of these individuals indicated that the SHP mutations were associated with obesity rather than with diabetes. Therefore, an additional group of 101 unrelated nondiabetic subjects with early-onset obesity was screened for mutations in the SHP gene. Two of the previously observed mutations (R34X and A195S) and two additional mutations (R57W and G189E) were identified in 6 subjects, whereas no mutations were identified in 116 young nondiabetic lean controls (P ‫؍‬ 0.0094). Functional studies of the mutant proteins show that the mutations result in the loss of SHP activity. These results suggest that genetic variation in the SHP gene contributes to increased body weight and reveal a pathway leading to this common metabolic disorder in Japanese.nuclear receptor ͉ maturity-onset diabetes of the young ͉ insulin secretion ͉ body weight ͉ hepatocyte nuclear factor H eterozygous mutations in genes encoding transcription factors in the hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF) regulatory cascade (1) are associated with an early-onset autosomal dominant form of diabetes mellitus, maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) (2). To date, diabetes-associated mutations have been found in three members of this regulatory network, HNF-1␣, -1␤, and -4␣ (MODY3, 5, and 1, respectively) (3-6). These forms of MODY are characterized primarily by defective insulin secretion with normal body weight (7-9). In contrast, forms of early-onset autosomal-dominant type 2 diabetes that are not linked to known MODY genes are often characterized by insulin resistance with high body weight, rather than by pure pancreatic ␤-cell defects (10). It is not known whether obesity-associated MODY genes or other common modifying factors are responsible for these phenotypic features.The protein small heterodimer partner (SHP; also called NROB2 for nuclear receptor subfamily 0, group B, member 2), an atypical orphan nuclear receptor that lacks a conventional DNA-binding domain, interacts with a number of other nuclear receptors, including HNF-4␣, and inhibits their transcriptional activity (11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17). SHP is expressed in the liver and has recently been suggested to regulate cholesterol homeostasis by an inhibitory e...

Mice deficient small heterodimer partner (SHP) are protected from diet induced hepatic steatosis due to increased fatty acid oxidation and decreased lipogenesis. The decreased lipogenesis appears to be a direct consequence of very low expression of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma 2 (PPARγ2), a potent lipogenic transcription factor, in the SHP−/− liver. The current study focuses on the identification of a SHP dependent regulatory cascade that controls PPARγ2 gene expression, thereby regulating hepatic fat accumulation. Illumina BeadChip array and real-time polymerase chain reaction were used to identify genes responsible for the linkage between SHP and PPARγ2 using hepatic RNAs isolated from SHP−/− and SHP-overexpressing mice. The initial efforts identify that hairy and enhancer of split 6 (Hes6), a novel transcriptional repressor, is an important mediator of the regulation of PPARγ2 transcription by SHP. The Hes6 promoter is specifically activated by the retinoic acid receptor (RAR) in response to its natural agonist ligand all-trans retinoic acid (atRA), and is repressed by SHP. Hes6 subsequently represses hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4α) activated-PPARγ2 gene expression via direct inhibition of the HNF4α transcriptional activity. Furthermore, we provide evidences that atRA treatment or adenovirus-mediated RARα overexpression significantly reduced hepatic fat accumulation in obese mouse models as observed in earlier studies and the beneficial effect is achieved via the proposed transcriptional cascade. Conclusions Our study describes a novel transcriptional regulatory cascade controlling hepatic lipid metabolism that identifies retinoic acid signaling as a new therapeutic approach to non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases.

clones were isolated from human and mouse genomic libraries. The SHP gene was composed of two exons interrupted by a single intron spanning approximately 1.8 kilobases in human and 1.2 kilobases in mouse. Genomic Southern blot analysis and fluorescence in situ hybridization of human metaphase chromosomes indicated that the SHP gene is located at the human chromosome 1p36.1 subband. The 5-flanking regions of human and mouse SHP genes were highly conserved, showing 77% homology in the region of approximately 600 nucleotides upstream from the transcription start site. Primer extension analysis was carried out to determine the transcription start site of human SHP to 32 nucleotides downstream of a potential TATA box. The human SHP gene was specifically expressed in fetal liver, fetal adrenal gland, adult spleen, and adult small intestine. As expected from this expression pattern, the activity of the mouse SHP promoter measured by transient transfection was significantly higher in the adrenal-derived Y1 cells than HeLa cells.The nuclear receptor superfamily is a group of transcription factors regulated by small hydrophobic hormones such as retinoic acid, thyroid hormone, and steroids and also includes a large number of related proteins that do not have known ligands, referred to as orphan nuclear receptors (for reviews see Refs. 1, 2). The nuclear receptors directly regulate transcription by binding to specific DNA sequences named hormone response elements, generally located in promoters of target genes. The nuclear hormone receptors share a common domain structure. The central DNA binding domain (DBD) 1 includes two zinc binding modules, which consist of a series of invariant cysteine residues. A conserved helical region termed the P box within the DBD (3) makes base-specific contacts and serves as one of the main criteria used for classification of the nuclear receptor superfamily. The C-terminal ligand binding domain (LBD) binds to the cognate ligands. This domain also contains dimerization and transcriptional activation functions. A less well conserved hinge domain that separates DBD and the ligand binding domain has been thought to serve merely as a flexible linker. However, recent results demonstrate that it is also involved with transcriptional repression, at least for a subset of receptors (4). In addition, it was also shown to contain nuclear localization signals (1, 2). A quite variable N-terminal domain includes a transcriptional activation function with some receptors.Although ligands have not been identified for orphan nuclear receptors, a variety of results indicate that they have important functions. The simplest is that knockout mutations of these orphans in mice frequently have shown much more dramatic defects than similar mutations of the conventional receptor genes (5-7). We have recently reported an unusual orphan member of the nuclear receptors that contains a ligand binding domain but lacks the conserved DBD (8). This orphan receptor interacts, both in vitro and in the yeast two-hybrid system wi...

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ or PPARG) is a ligand-activated transcription factor belonging to the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily. It plays a master role in the differentiation and proliferation of adipose tissues. It has two major isoforms, PPARγ1 and PPARγ2, encoded from a single gene using two separate promoters and alternative splicing. Among them, PPARγ2 is most abundantly expressed in adipocytes and plays major adipogenic and lipogenic roles in the tissue. Furthermore, it has been shown that PPARγ2 is also expressed in the liver, specifically in hepatocytes, and its expression level positively correlates with fat accumulation induced by pathological conditions such as obesity and diabetes. Knockout of the hepatic Pparg gene ameliorates hepatic steatosis induced by diet or genetic manipulations. Transcriptional activation of Pparg in the liver induces the adipogenic program to store fatty acids in lipid droplets as observed in adipocytes. Understanding how the hepatic Pparg gene expression is regulated will help develop preventative and therapeutic treatments for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Due to the potential adverse effect of hepatic Pparg gene deletion on peripheral tissue functions, therapeutic interventions that target PPARγ for fatty liver diseases require fine-tuning of this gene’s expression and transcriptional activity.

Small heterodimer partner (SHP) is an orphan nuclear receptor that lacks a conventional DNA binding domain. It interacts with several other members of the nuclear receptor superfamily and inhibits receptor transactivation. In order to characterize the regulation of SHP expression, a number of receptors and other transcription factors were tested for effects on the SHP promoter. Among these, the orphan receptor steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1) was found to potently transactivate the SHP promoter. Detailed footprinting studies show that the SHP promoter contains at least five SF-1 binding sites, and mutagenesis studies demonstrate each of the three strongest binding sites is required for SF-1 transactivation. SHP is coexpressed with SF-1 in adrenal glands, but is also expressed in tissues that lack SF-1, including liver. However, liver expresses a close relative of SF-1, the orphan fetoprotein transcription factor (FTF), and FTF can also transactivate the SHP promoter. These results suggest that alterations in the levels or activities of SF-1 or FTF could modulate SHP expression in appropriate tissues and thereby affect a variety of receptor dependent signaling pathways.Mammalian genomes encode approximately 50 members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily (1). The receptors for steroids, retinoids, thyroid hormone, and a number of other ligands currently comprise about half of the superfamily. These proteins are ligand-dependent transcription factors that generally bind DNA as either homodimers or heterodimers and activate transcription in the presence of their ligands. The rest of the family is made up by the orphan receptors, which do not have known ligands but share sequence similarity with the conventional receptors (2). Throughout the superfamily the highest sequence similarities are observed in the DNA binding domains, which are zinc-binding modules. Lesser conservation is observed in the ligand binding domains, with as little as 20% sequence identity between the most divergent family members. However, x-ray crystallographic studies have confirmed that even divergent sequences adopt very similar three-dimensional structures (3).In mammals there are at least two unusual orphans that lack conventional DNA binding domains. DAX-1, the first described, includes a ligand binding domain fused to a novel domain reported to bind DNA, but unrelated to the DNA binding domains of other nuclear receptors (4). DAX-1 interacts functionally (5, 6) with the orphan SF-1, which was first identified as an activator of expression of a number of steroidogenic enzymes (7). Within the receptor superfamily, SF-1 is also somewhat unusual in that it binds DNA efficiently as a monomer. SF-1 is required for development of both gonads and adrenals (8), and mutations of DAX-1 result in congenital adrenal hypoplasia in humans (4). SHP 1 (9) is the second orphan receptor that lacks a conventional DNA binding domain. It was initially isolated on the basis of its interaction with the orphan receptor CAR and also interacts with a number of...

This article is available online at http://www.jlr.org Supplementary key words hepatic steatosis • ␤ -oxidation • oxygen consumption • respiratory quotient • insulin sensitivityA primary physiological function of the orphan nuclear receptor small heterodimer partner (SHP) is in the negative feedback regulation of Cyp7A1 gene expression in response to elevated bile acids ( 1, 2 ), although SHP independent bile acid feedback pathways have also been suggested ( 3-5 ). In addition, SHP plays a role in the basal bile fl ow rate through regulation of the bile salt export pump, BSEP ( 6 ).Interaction of SHP with hepatocyte nuclear factor alpha (HNF4 ␣ ), a gene responsible for maturity-onset diabetes of the young, suggested possible linkage between SHP and diabetes ( 7 ). Indeed, several heterozygous mutations in the SHP gene have been found in mildly obese Japanese subjects with maturity-onset diabetes of the young ( 8 ). Additional analysis revealed that the SHP mutations cosegregated with obesity but not with diabetes. Novel genetic variants were also found in UK and Danish populations, Abstract Mixed background SHP؊ / ؊ mice are resistant to diet-induced obesity due to increased energy expenditure caused by enhanced PGC-1 ␣ expression in brown adipocytes. However, congenic SHP ؊ / ؊ mice on the C57BL/6 background showed normal expression of PGC-1 ␣ and other genes involved in brown adipose tissue thermogenesis. Thus, we reinvestigated the impact of small heterodimer partner (SHP) deletion on diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance using congenic SHP ؊ / ؊ mice. Compared with their C57BL/6 wild-type counterparts, SHP ؊ / ؊ mice subjected to a 6 month challenge with a Western diet (WestD) were leaner but more glucose intolerant, showed hepatic insulin resistance despite decreased triglyceride accumulation and increased ␤ -oxidation, exhibited alterations in peripheral tissue uptake of dietary lipids, maintained a higher respiratory quotient, which did not decrease even after WestD feeding, and displayed islet dysfunction. Hepatic mRNA expression analysis revealed that many genes expressed higher in SHP

Elevated plasma TGs increase risk of cardiovascular disease in women. Estrogen treatment raises plasma TGs in women, but molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here we explore the role of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) in the regulation of TG metabolism in female mice, which naturally lack CETP. In transgenic CETP females, acute estrogen treatment raised plasma TGs 50%, increased TG production, and increased expression of genes involved in VLDL synthesis, but not in nontransgenic littermate females. In CETP females, estrogen enhanced expression of small heterodimer partner (SHP), a nuclear receptor regulating VLDL production. Deletion of liver SHP prevented increases in TG production and expression of genes involved in VLDL synthesis in CETP mice with estrogen treatment. We also examined whether CETP expression had effects on TG metabolism independent of estrogen treatment. CETP increased liver β-oxidation and reduced liver TG content by 60%. Liver estrogen receptor α (ERα) was required for CETP expression to enhance β-oxidation and reduce liver TG content. Thus, CETP alters at least two networks governing TG metabolism, one involving SHP to increase VLDL-TG production in response to estrogen, and another involving ERα to enhance β-oxidation and lower liver TG content. These findings demonstrate a novel role for CETP in estrogen-mediated increases in TG production and a broader role for CETP in TG metabolism.