Lignin is an abundant biorenewable resource with an annual
production
of 50 million metric tons. Despite the abundance and high potential
for applications, only ∼2% of the produced lignin was used
for industrial applications. One of the main reasons for the low applicability
is the lack of fundamental studies. In particular, the molecular binding
mechanism of lignin is a key for the development and design of lignin
into higher-value products. In this study, the interaction forces
between homogeneous lignin nanofilms as thin as a phenylpropane unit
monolayer (∼11 Å) are directly measured using a surface
forces apparatus (SFA) at various concentrations of intervening electrolyte
solution. The measured adhesion force decreases with increasing electrolyte
concentration, the inverse of what would be expected according to
the electric double layer theory. These findings, along with detailed
analyses using Derjaguin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek
(DLVO) and hydrophobic theories, strongly indicate that hydrophobic
interaction accounts for a large proportion of the interaction forces.
Additional measurements between methyl-terminated self-assembled monolayer
and lignin film confirm that hydrophobic interactions dominated the
overall interaction potential of lignin films. Furthermore, lignin-supplemented
activated carbon composites show enhanced compressive strength, which
indicates the potential use of lignin as an ecofriendly reinforcing
binder.
M13 bacteriophages can provide a versatile platform for nanobiotechnology because of their unique biological and physicochemical properties. Polypeptides on their surfaces can be finely tuned on demand through genetic engineering, enabling tailored assembly of multiple functional components through specific interactions. Their versatility has been demonstrated by synthesizing various unprecedented hybrid materials for energy storage, biosensing, and catalysis. Here we select a specific type of genetically engineered M13 bacteriophage (DSPH) to investigate the origin of interactions. The interaction forces between the phage-coated surface and five different functionalized self-assembled monolayers are directly measured using a surface forces apparatus. We confirm that the phages have strong adhesion energies in acidic environments due to π-π stacking and hydrophobic interactions, while hydrogen bonding interactions remain relatively weak. These results provide quantitative and qualitative information of the molecular interaction mechanisms of DSPH phages, which can be utilized as a database of the bacteriophage interactions.
The molecular interaction mechanism of lignin was demonstrated by measuring the adhesion forces using an SFA and monitoring adsorbed mass of lignin with QCM-D. Herein, five different types of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) were utilized.
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