FK506 binding proteins 12 and 12.6 (FKBP12 and FKBP12.6) are intracellular receptors for the immunosuppressant drug FK506 (ref. 1). The skeletal muscle ryanodine receptor (RyR1) is isolated as a hetero-oligomer with FKBP12 (ref. 2), whereas the cardiac ryanodine receptor (RyR2) more selectively associates with FKBP12.6 (refs 3, 4, 5). FKBP12 modulates Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in skeletal muscle and developmental cardiac defects have been reported in FKBP12-deficient mice, but the role of FKBP12.6 in cardiac excitation-contraction coupling remains unclear. Here we show that disruption of the FKBP12.6 gene in mice results in cardiac hypertrophy in male mice, but not in females. Female hearts are normal, despite the fact that male and female knockout mice display similar dysregulation of Ca2+ release, seen as increases in the amplitude and duration of Ca2+ sparks and calcium-induced calcium release gain. Female FKBP12.6-null mice treated with tamoxifen, an oestrogen receptor antagonist, develop cardiac hypertrophy similar to that of male mice. We conclude that FKBP12.6 modulates cardiac excitation-contraction coupling and that oestrogen plays a protective role in the hypertrophic response of the heart to Ca2+ dysregulation.

Pattern-mixture models stratify incomplete data by the pattern of missing values and formulate distinct models within each stratum. Pattern-mixture models are developed for analyzing a random sample on continuous variables y(1), y(2) when values of y(2) are nonrandomly missing. Methods for scalar y(1) and y(2) are here generalized to vector y(1) and y(2) with additional fixed covariates x. Parameters in these models are identified by alternative assumptions about the missing-data mechanism. Models may be underidentified (in which case additional assumptions are needed), just-identified, or overidentified. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods are developed for the latter two situations, using the EM and SEM algorithms, direct and interactive simulation methods. The methods are illustrated on a data set involving alternative dosage regimens for the treatment of schizophrenia using haloperidol and on a regression example. Sensitivity to alternative assumptions about the missing-data mechanism is assessed, and the new methods are compared with complete-case analysis and maximum likelihood for a probit selection model.

In this study we examined the expression of RyR subtypes and the role of RyRs in neurotransmitter- and hypoxia-induced Ca2+ release and contraction in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). Under perforated patch clamp conditions, maximal activation of RyRs with caffeine or inositol triphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) with noradrenaline induced equivalent increases in [Ca2+]i and Ca2+-activated Cl− currents in freshly isolated rat PASMCs. Following maximal IP3-induced Ca2+ release, neither caffeine nor chloro-m-cresol induced a response, whereas prior application of caffeine or chloro-m-cresol blocked IP3-induced Ca2+ release. In cultured human PASMCs, which lack functional expression of RyRs, caffeine failed to affect ATP-induced increases in [Ca2+]i in the presence and absence of extracellular Ca2+. The RyR antagonists ruthenium red, ryanodine, tetracaine, and dantrolene greatly inhibited submaximal noradrenaline– and hypoxia-induced Ca2+ release and contraction in freshly isolated rat PASMCs, but did not affect ATP-induced Ca2+ release in cultured human PASMCs. Real-time quantitative RT-PCR and immunofluorescence staining indicated similar expression of all three RyR subtypes (RyR1, RyR2, and RyR3) in freshly isolated rat PASMCs. In freshly isolated PASMCs from RyR3 knockout (RyR3−/−) mice, hypoxia-induced, but not submaximal noradrenaline–induced, Ca2+ release and contraction were significantly reduced. Ruthenium red and tetracaine can further inhibit hypoxic increase in [Ca2+]i in RyR3−/− mouse PASMCs. Collectively, our data suggest that (a) RyRs play an important role in submaximal noradrenaline– and hypoxia-induced Ca2+ release and contraction; (b) all three subtype RyRs are expressed; and (c) RyR3 gene knockout significantly inhibits hypoxia-, but not submaximal noradrenaline–induced Ca2+ and contractile responses in PASMCs.

The molecular mechanisms underlying hypoxic responses in pulmonary and systemic arteries remain obscure. Here we for the first time report that acute hypoxia significantly increased total PKC and PKCɛ activity in pulmonary, but not mesenteric arteries, while these two tissues showed comparable PKCɛ protein expression and activation by the PKC activator phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate. Hypoxia induced an increase in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in isolated pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs), but not in mesenteric artery SMCs. Inhibition of mitochondrial ROS generation with rotenone, myxothiazol, or glutathione peroxidase-1 overexpression, prevented hypoxia-induced increases in total PKC and PKCɛ activity in pulmonary arteries. The inhibitory effects of rotenone were reversed by exogenous hydrogen peroxide. A PKCɛ translocation peptide inhibitor or PKCɛ gene deletion decreased hypoxic increase in [Ca 2+ ] i in PASMCs, whereas the conventional PKC inhibitor GÖ6976 had no effect. These data suggest that acute hypoxia may specifically increase mitochondrial ROS generation, which subsequently activates PKC, particularly PKCɛ, contributing to hypoxia-induced increase in [Ca 2+ ] i and contraction in PASMCs. KeywordsHypoxia; protein kinase C; reactive oxygen species; mitochondria; intracellular calcium; pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) is observed in isolated lungs, pulmonary arteries, and pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). The pulmonary circulation differs from the systemic circulation in response to oxygen tension; pulmonary arteries constrict to physiological hypoxia (~ 20-60 mmHg PO 2 ), whereas systemic arteries vasodilate. The mechanisms for these opposing responses to hypoxia appear to lie within the vascular SMCs. Hypoxia increases intracellular Ca 2+ concentration ([Ca 2+ ] i ) and contracts PASMCs. In contrast, SMCs from systemic arteries display decreased [Ca 2+ ] i and relax in response to hypoxia. The response of PASMCs to acute hypoxia involves calcium entry through voltagedependent and store-operated Ca 2+ channels, as well as Ca 2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. Hypoxia-dependent changes in reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration have been proposed to mediate HPV by several laboratories, although the details of this hypothesis differ greatly [9; 10]. However, the signaling pathways underlying artery-specific, acute hypoxic vasoconstriction remain to be fully elucidated. AnimalsPKCɛ −/− mice were purchased from the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, ME); Swiss-Webster mice from Taconic (Germantown, NY). Glutathione peroxidase-1 (Gpx1) overexpression mice were generated and maintained as described previously [18]. All animal experiments were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Albany Medical College. To examine the effects of pharmacological reagents, control experiments were carried out in cells or tissues from the same mice. For experimen...

To determine the mechanisms responsible for the termination of Ca 2؉ -activated Cl ؊ currents (I Cl(Ca) ), simultaneous measurements of whole cell currents and intracellular Ca 2؉ concentration ( Calcium-activated chloride currents (I Cl(Ca) ) have been identified in numerous cell types including neurons (1, 2), secretory cells (3), and smooth and striated muscle (4-7). Although the function of these currents in the regulation of cell excitability remains uncertain, evidence suggests that I Cl(Ca) prolongs the action potential and calcium entry (1,5,(8)(9)(10) and mediates fast postsynaptic potentials in smooth muscle (4). Moreover, in smooth muscle, I Cl(Ca) is associated with the sporadic release of calcium from intracellular stores, resulting in spontaneous transient inward currents (STICs) at resting membrane potentials (11), which may act to couple intracellular calcium release to spontaneous phasic electrical activity (12).Following a rise in intracellular calcium ([Ca 2ϩ ] i ), I Cl(Ca) activates and decays rapidly (2-5 s) in muscle cells, Xenopus oocytes, and cultured spinal neurons (4,13,14). It has been suggested that the gating of calcium-activated chloride channels is controlled by [Ca 2ϩ ] i alone, and that the rapid current decay observed after cell stimulation is because of the decline in [Ca 2ϩ ] i , rather than channel inactivation (15). We have previously observed a marked difference in the rate of decay of I Cl(Ca) and [Ca 2ϩ ] i after release of intracellular calcium-I Cl(Ca) begins to decline before the peak [Ca 2ϩ ] i is achieved and decays completely before [Ca 2ϩ ] i falls below the threshold required for current activation (16). This finding, and evidence that single channel currents rapidly run down in excised patches (17), suggested that calcium-activated chloride channels might undergo an inactivation process independent of calcium removal. We describe experiments demonstrating that the termination of I Cl(Ca) in smooth muscle is a result of channel inactivation, resulting from phosphorylation of the channel or an associated protein by calcium͞calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII). We show that calciumactivated chloride channels rapidly inactivate despite a sustained rise in [Ca 2ϩ ] i , and that subsequent channel availability requires protein dephosphorylation. These results indicate that I Cl(Ca) is terminated by a negative feedback mechanism that effectively uncouples channel activity from cellular calcium. MATERIALS AND METHODSSingle smooth muscle cells were isolated from equine trachealis by using a pressure-perfusion technique as described previously (18, 19). Membrane currents were recorded by the nystatin-perforated or standard patch clamp method by using an EPC9 system (HEKA Electronics, Lambrecht͞Pfalz, Germany). For perforated patch experiments cells were voltageclamped at Ϫ60 mV by using electrode pipettes of 2-4 M⍀ resistance; in dialysis experiments the resistance of patch pipettes was 1-3 M⍀. For simultaneous measurement...