Macrophages are highly plastic cells that can polarize into functionally distinct subsets in vivo and in vitro in response to environmental signals. The development of protocols to model macrophage polarization in vitro greatly contributes to our understanding of macrophage biology. Macrophages are divided into two main groups: Pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages (classically activated) and anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages (alternatively activated), based on several key surface markers and the production of inflammatory mediators. However, the expression of these common macrophage polarization markers is greatly affected by the stimulation time used. Unfortunately, there is no consensus yet regarding the optimal stimulation times for particular macrophage polarization markers in in vitro experiments. This situation is problematic, (i) as analysing a particular marker at a suboptimal time point can lead to false-negative results, and (ii) as it clearly impedes the comparison of different studies. Using human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) in vitro, we analysed how the expression of the main polarization markers for M1 (CD64, CD86, CXCL9, CXCL10, HLA-DR, IDO1, IL1β, IL12, TNF), M2a (CD200R, CD206, CCL17, CCL22, IL-10, TGM2), and M2c (CD163, IL-10, TGFβ) macrophages changes over time at mRNA and protein levels. Our data establish the most appropriate stimulation time for the analysis of the expression of human macrophage polarization markers in vitro. Providing such a reference guide will likely facilitate the investigation of macrophage polarization and its reproducibility.
Currently, cardiovascular diseases are among the most common causes of death in adults, with high mortality rates. The treatment of cardiovascular diseases is limited by factors such as donor deficiency and immunological tolerance. On the face of it, studies on person-specific treatment methods are rapidly taking place. Tissue engineering studies are accelerating with the developments in biomaterials science and existing cell studies and applications. Tissue engineering approach in tissue damage treatment and cardiovascular applications also pioneer in terms of clinical applications. In this review, we explain, ongoing tissue applications and preclinical studies in cardiomyocyte and heart valve models treatment are described. Kard‹yovasKüler doKu Mühend‹sl‹⁄‹Doku mühendisli¤inin amacı, hasar görmü veya ilevini kaybetmi doku/organ yapılarının geometrisine özgü yeni doku iskeleleri üreterek vücuda uyumlu ve doku/organın ilevini yerine getirebilecek yapay doku oluturmaktır. [1,2] Kardiyovasküler fizyoloji açısından kardiyovaskü-ler doku mühendisli¤i, balangıçtan beri uygulama ve tedavi açısından doku mühendisli¤i çalımaları alanında öncelikli hedeflerden olmutur.Günümüzde, kardiyovasküler hastalıklar genel ölüm nedenlerinin %20'sini oluturur iken ve ABD'deki erikinlerde en sık rastlanan ölüm nedenidir.[3] Bu açıdan kardiyovasküler tedavi için önemli adımlar atılmı olmakla birlikte, protez implantlarının kullanılmasını gerektiren cerrahi müdahale birçok yetikin hastada kritik olmaya devam etmektedir. Buna ra¤men, kalp nakli, son dönem kalp yetmezli¤i için tek ve kesin tedavi olmaya devam etmektedir. Buna ek olarak, do¤utan kalp anomalileri, yenido¤an döneminde önde gelen ölüm nedenidir ve bu hasta nüfusunda
Dendritic cells are immunogenic and tolorogenic cells that present the first stage antigen in the immune system. Dendritic cells are usually found in peripheral tissues. Blood and skin are the most easily accessible structures to examine these cells. Dendritic cells are most commonly used in vaccine production and development. In this review we aim to examine the current status in dendritic cell vaccines and to investigate the progress of phase studies from a retrospective point of view.
Derived from different origins in the human body, stem cells are a source of cells that can be transformed into different types of cell structures. Stem cell studies are increasing in clinical treatments day by day. Mesenchymal stem cells are the most commonly used type of stem cells. Mesenchymal stem cells present applications for treatment in different areas of clinical studies. Some of these studies are cell-based therapies, gene carriers, and in particular the application of tissue-engineering as an up-to-date and popular engineering practice. Clinical studies rapidly continue with regards to the applications of mesenchymal stem cells and tissue-engineering, such as bone tissue-engineering, bone defects and spinal cord injuries. In this review, we explain stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells, clinical studies in relation to their application areas and bone tissue-engineering applications.
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