The aim of this review is to provide a broad perspective on intestinal absorption and the impact of intestinal first-pass metabolism on both clearance and drug-drug interaction prediction along with its historical perspectives. The review also considers abilities to bridge the gap between the increasing amount of intestinal in vitro data and the importance of intestinal first-pass metabolism in vivo. The significance of efflux transporters on the intestinal absorption is also discussed.
In different National Pharmacopeias drug for treating complications with leech are not registered. Antileech activity of Chitosan and Chitosan chlorhydrate (CCH) on Placobdella emydae was examined and compared with Albendazole and Mebendazole as control and distilled water as placebo in terms of mean paralyzing time and mean death time. DSC displayed absence of endothermic peak and glass transition temperature; depicting amorphous nature of Chitosan and CCH. Both Chitosans showed dose dependent activity. Albendazole most effectively killed leeches after 32.5±3.62 min at 2% concentration while 2% Mebendazole took 46.5±3.64 min. Chitosan + (2, 3 and 4%) and CCH (1%, 1.5% and 2%) showed 3 antileech impacts. While Chitosan (5%) and CCH (2.5% + and 3%) showed 4 impact indicating antileech activity. 1% of Albendazole, Mebendazole and 3% CCH showed statistically similar results (p<0.001). High affinity to in-vivo macromolecules might be cause of antileech property possessed by Chitosan products. Both Chitosan forms were amorphous leading to easily enter in parasite body. Possible reason for better performance of CCH could be better transcuticular absorption into parasite. Chitosan and CCH can be checked for veterinary application as a de wormer in cattle, pigs and sheep. Being biodegradable, biocompatible, non toxic, physiologically inert and in amorphous form, CCH can be used as de worming product or as an effective supplement for medicinal products. Being not having any effective drug, without side effect and cost benefits; CCH proves to be a solution.
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