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Abstract. The snow cover products of optical remote sensing systems play an important role in research into global climate change, the hydrological cycle, and the energy balance. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) snow cover products are the most popular datasets used in the community. However, for MODIS, cloud cover results in spatial and temporal discontinuity for long-term snow monitoring. In the last few decades, a large number of cloud removal methods for MODIS snow cover products have been proposed. In this paper, our goal is to make a comprehensive summarization of the existing algorithms for generating cloud-free MODIS snow cover products and to expose the development trends. The methods of generating cloud-free MODIS snow cover products are classified into spatial methods, temporal methods, spatio-temporal methods, and multi-source fusion methods. The spatial methods and temporal methods remove the cloud cover of the snow product based on the spatial patterns and temporal changing correlation of the snowpack, respectively. The spatio-temporal methods utilize the spatial and temporal features of snow jointly. The multi-source fusion methods utilize the complementary information among different sources among optical observations, microwave observations, and station observations.

The Tibetan Plateau (TP) is an important component of the global environmental system, on which the snow cover greatly affects the regional climate and ecology. Moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) snow cover products have been demonstrated to be appropriate for investigating the snow cover over the TP. However, they are subject to cloud obscuration, and the TP’s extremely complex terrain makes the snow monitoring difficult. Therefore, in this paper, we propose a two-stage spatio–temporal fusion framework for the cloud removal of MODIS C6 snow products, including an adjusted Terra and Aqua combination (TAC) and a spatio–temporal fusion based on Gaussian kernel function and error correction (STF-GKF-EC). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that a spatio–temporally continuous daily 500-m MODIS normalized difference snow index (NDSI) product has been generated for the TP, which greatly improves the spatial and temporal resolutions of the current snow cover products. The main stage, STF-GKF-EC, adaptively weights the spatial and temporal correlations by the Gaussian kernel function, and further takes the rapid changes of snow cover into consideration through the error correction. The experiments indicated that STF-GKF-EC removes clouds completely, achieving an overall accuracy (OA) and mean absolute error (MAE) of 91.48% and 3.88, respectively. Based on the cloud-removed results, during 2001–2017, as far as the intra-annual variation is concerned, a large proportion of the snow cover appears between October and May, with a peak in February/March, and the variation is mainly controlled by temperature. For the inter-annual variation, an obvious increasing trend of 0.68/year for NDSI is observed before 2005, followed by a slight decreasing trend of 0.16/year, in which precipitation is a better explanation factor than temperature.

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Because of the presence of clouds, the available information in optical remote sensing images is greatly reduced. These temporal-based methods are widely used for cloud removal. However, the temporal differences in multitemporal images have consistently been a challenge for these types of methods. Towards this end, a bishift network (BSN) model is proposed to remove thick clouds from optical remote sensing images. As its name implies, BSN is combined of two dependent shifts. Moment matching (MM) and deep style transfer (DST) are the first shift to preliminarily eliminate temporal differences in multitemporal images. In the second shift, an improved shift net is proposed to reconstruct missing information under cloud covers. It introduces multiscale feature connectivity with shift connections and depthwise separable convolution (DSC), which can capture local details and global semantics effectively. Through experiments with Sentinel-2 images, it has been demonstrated that the proposed BSN has great advantages over traditional methods and state-of-the-art methods in cloud removal.

Abstract. Snow dynamics are crucial in ecosystems, affecting radiation balance, hydrological cycles, biodiversity, and human activities. Snow areas with notably diverse characteristics are extensively distributed in China, mainly including Northern Xinjiang (NX), Northeast China (NC), and the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP). Spatiotemporal continuous snow monitoring is indispensable for ecosystem maintenance. Nevertheless, the formidable challenge of cloud obscuration severely impedes data collection. In the past decades, abundant binary snow cover area (SCA) maps have been retrieved from moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) datasets. However, the integrated normalized difference snow index (NDSI) maps containing additional details on snow cover extent are still extremely scarce. In this study, a recent 20-year stretch seamless Terra–Aqua MODIS NDSI collection in China is generated using a Spatio-Temporal Adaptive fusion method with erroR correction (STAR), which comprehensively considers spatial and temporal contextual information. Evaluation tests confirm that the cloud-free STAR NDSI collection is superior to the two baseline datasets. The omission error decreased by 10 % in NX compared to the snow cover extent product, and the average correlation coefficient increased by 0.11 compared to the global cloud-gap-filled MODIS NDSI product. Consequently, this collection can serve as a basic dataset for hydrological and climatic modeling to explore various critical environmental issues in China. This collection is available from https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5644386 (Jing et al., 2021).

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