Background:We determined the role of presynaptic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) activity in spinal cords in opioid-induced hyperalgesia and tolerance. Results: Chronic opioid increases presynaptic NMDAR activity at primary sensory nerve terminals through protein kinase C. Conclusion: Increased presynaptic NMDAR activity potentiates nociceptive input and is responsible for opioid hyperalgesia and tolerance. Significance: Understanding mechanisms of increased NMDAR activity is important for improving opioid therapies.

BackgroundChronic pain is a major clinical problem with limited treatment options. Previous studies have demonstrated that activation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) can attenuate neuropathic pain. Inflammation/immune response at the site of complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) injection is known to be a critical trigger of the pathological changes that produce inflammatory pain. However, whether activation of AMPK produces an analgesic effect through inhibiting the proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1β (IL-1β), in inflammatory pain remains unknown.MethodsInflammatory pain was induced in mice injected with CFA. The effects of AICAR (5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxyamide ribonucleoside, an AMPK activator), Compound C (an AMPK inhibitor), and IL-1ra (an IL-1 receptor antagonist) were tested at day 4 after CFA injection. Inflammatory pain was assessed with von Frey filaments and hot plate. Immunoblotting, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, and immunofluorescence were used to assess inflammation-induced biochemical changes.ResultsThe AMPK activator AICAR produced an analgesic effect and inhibited the level of proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β in the inflamed skin in mice. Moreover, activation of AMPK suppressed CFA-induced NF-κB p65 translocation from the cytosol to the nucleus in activated macrophages (CD68+ and CX3CR1+) of inflamed skin tissues. Subcutaneous injection of IL-1ra attenuated CFA-induced inflammatory pain. The AMPK inhibitor Compound C and AMPKα shRNA reversed the analgesic effect of AICAR and the effects of AICAR on IL-1β and NF-κB activation in inflamed skin tissues.ConclusionsOur study provides new information that AMPK activation produces the analgesic effect by inhibiting NF-κB activation and reducing the expression of IL-1β in inflammatory pain.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12974-019-1411-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

While postsynaptic GlyRs as α/β heteromers attract the most research attention, little is known about the role of presynaptic GlyRs, likely α homomers, in diseases. Here, we demonstrate that DH-CBD, a nonpsychoactive cannabinoid, can rescue GlyR functional deficiency and exaggerated acoustic and tactile startle responses in mice bearing the point-mutations in the α1 GlyRs responsible for a hereditary startle/hyperekplexia disease. The GlyRs expressed as α1 homomers either in HEK-293 cells or at presynaptic terminals of the calyceal synapses in auditory brainstem are most vulnerable to hyperekplexia mutation-induced impairment. Homomeric mutants are more sensitive than heteromers to DH-CBD, suggesting presynaptic GlyRs as a primary target. Consistent with this, DH-CBD selectively rescues impaired presynaptic GlyR activity and diminished glycine release in the brainstem and spinal cord of hyperekplexic mutant mice. Thus, presynaptic α GlyRs emerge as a potential therapeutic target for dominant hyperekplexia disease and other diseases with GlyR deficiency.

BACKGROUND Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is an incurable B-cell malignancy with the poorest prognosis among B-cell lymphoma patients. The signal pathways that trigger MCL escape from immune surveillance are unclear. As Toll-like receptors (TLRs) initiate innate and adaptive immune responses against invading pathogens, we investigated the impact of TLR signaling in MCL cells. METHODS We examined TLR expression on MCL cell lines and primary tumor cells from patients. We focused on TLR4 and its ligand lipopolysacharide (LPS) on MCL cells and their function on MCL proliferation and immune evasion. RESULTS MCL cells expressed multiple TLRs and TLR4 was among the highest-expressed molecules. Activation of TLR4 signaling in MCL cells by LPS induced MCL proliferation, and upregulated the secretion of cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-10, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). LPS-pretreated MCL cells inhibited the proliferation and cytolytic activity of T cells by secreted IL-10 and VEGF, and neutralizing antibodies against these cytokines restored their functions. Similar results were also observed in TLR4+MyD88+ but not in TLR4+MyD88− primary lymphoma cells from MCL patients. Knockdown of TLR4 on MCL cells abrogated the effect of LPS on MCLs in term of cell growth or secretion of the cytokines, and evasion of the immune system. CONCLUSION Our study indicates that TLR4 signaling triggers a cascade leading to MCL growth and evasion from the immune surveillance. Thus, TLR4 signaling molecules could be novel therapeutic targets for cancer therapy in MCL.