Individual single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) have been suspended in aqueous media using various anionic, cationic, nonionic surfactants and polymers. The surfactants are compared with respect to their ability to suspend individual SWNTs and the quality of the absorption and fluorescence spectra. For the ionic surfactants, sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) gives the most well resolved spectral features. For the nonionic systems, surfactants with higher molecular weight suspend more SWNT material and have more pronounced spectral features.

Broader applications of carbon nanotubes to real-world problems have largely gone unfulfilled because of difficult material synthesis and laborious processing. We report high-performance multifunctional carbon nanotube (CNT) fibers that combine the specific strength, stiffness, and thermal conductivity of carbon fibers with the specific electrical conductivity of metals. These fibers consist of bulk-grown CNTs and are produced by high-throughput wet spinning, the same process used to produce high-performance industrial fibers. These scalable CNT fibers are positioned for high-value applications, such as aerospace electronics and field emission, and can evolve into engineered materials with broad long-term impact, from consumer electronics to long-range power transmission.O n the molecular level, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have an outstanding combination of mechanical strength and stiffness, electrical and thermal conductivity, and low density, making them ideal multifunctional materials that combine the best properties of polymers, carbon fibers, and metals (1). However, such outstanding properties have remained elusive on a macroscopic scale. Handling CNTs with sufficient length, stiffness, and chemical inertness introduces major challenges in material processing. Here we report lightweight fibers that approach the high specific strength of polymeric and carbon fibers, while also achieving the high specific electrical conductivity of metals and the specific thermal conductivity of graphite fibers.Two distinct routes have been developed for manufacturing neat CNT fibers (2). One route employs a solid-state process wherein CNTs are either directly spun into a fiber from the synthesis reaction zone (3, 4) or from a CNT forest grown on a solid substrate (5). This approach does not lend itself to the typical easy scale-up of chemical processes, as it combines multiple steps into a single one, limiting the options for process and material optimization. Indeed, solidstate fibers have low packing and poor orientation, and include impurities within their structure (6). Despite these shortcomings, solid-state CNT fibers have delivered the best properties so far (3, 4, 7-9). The reason for this relative success is the length of the CNTs that constitute these fibers-1 mm or more (2). Longer CNTs reduce the number of CNT ends in a fiber, yielding greater strength (10) and reducing CNT junctions, which increases electrical and thermal conductivity (11). The alternate fiber production route-wet spinning-was the first method for producing CNT fibers (12). In this process, premade CNTs are dissolved or dispersed in a fluid, extruded out of a spinneret, and coagulated into a solid fiber by extracting the dispersant. Wet spinning is easily scaled to industrial levels and is indeed the route by which highperformance fibers are manufactured (including ballistic fibers such as Kevlar and Twaron and structural fibers such as Toho Tenax and Thornel carbon fibers) (13). Decoupling the synthesis of CNTs from the spinning of the fibers allo...

By combining three mutually immiscible polymeric components in a mixed-arm star block terpolymer architecture, we have observed the formation of a previously unknown class of multicompartment micelles in dilute aqueous solution. Connection of water-soluble poly(ethylene oxide) and two hydrophobic but immiscible components (a polymeric hydrocarbon and a perfluorinated polyether) at a common junction leads to molecular frustration when dispersed in aqueous solution. The incompatible hydrophobic blocks form cores that are protected from the water by the poly(ethylene oxide) blocks, but both are forced to make contact with the poly(ethylene oxide) by virtue of the chain architecture. The structures that emerge depend on the relative lengths of the blocks and can be tuned from discrete multicompartment micelles to extended wormlike structures with segmented cores.

Translating the unique characteristics of individual single-walled carbon nanotubes into macroscopic materials such as fibres and sheets has been hindered by ineffective assembly. Fluid-phase assembly is particularly attractive, but the ability to dissolve nanotubes in solvents has eluded researchers for over a decade. Here, we show that single-walled nanotubes form true thermodynamic solutions in superacids, and report the full phase diagram, allowing the rational design of fluid-phase assembly processes. Single-walled nanotubes dissolve spontaneously in chlorosulphonic acid at weight concentrations of up to 0.5 wt%, 1,000 times higher than previously reported in other acids. At higher concentrations, they form liquid-crystal phases that can be readily processed into fibres and sheets of controlled morphology. These results lay the foundation for bottom-up assembly of nanotubes and nanorods into functional materials.

The controlled environment vitrification system (CEVS) permits cryofixation of hydrated biological and colloidal dispersions and aggregates from a temperature- and saturation-controlled environment. Otherwise, specimens prepared in an uncontrolled laboratory atmosphere are subject to evaporation and heat transfer, which may introduce artifacts caused by concentration, pH, ionic strength, and temperature changes. Moreover, it is difficult to fix and examine the microstructure of systems at temperatures other than ambient (e.g., biological systems at in vivo conditions and colloidal systems above room temperature). A system has been developed that ensures that a liquid or partially liquid specimen is maintained in its original state while it is being prepared before vitrification and, once prepared, is vitrified with little alteration of its microstructure. A controlled environment is provided within a chamber where temperature and chemical activity of volatile components can be controlled while the specimen is being prepared. The specimen grid is mounted on a plunger, and a synchronous shutter is opened almost simultaneously with the release of the plunger, so that the specimen is propelled abruptly through the shutter opening into a cryogenic bath. We describe the system and its use and illustrate the value of the technique with TEM micrographs of surfactant microstructures in which specimen preparation artifacts were avoided. We also discuss applications to other instruments like SEM, to other techniques like freeze-fracture, and to novel "on the grid" experiments that make it possible to freeze successive instants of dynamic processes such as membrane fusion, chemical reactions, and phase transitions.

Graphene combines unique electronic properties and surprising quantum effects with outstanding thermal and mechanical properties. Many potential applications, including electronics and nanocomposites, require that graphene be dispersed and processed in a fluid phase. Here, we show that graphite spontaneously exfoliates into single-layer graphene in chlorosulphonic acid, and dissolves at isotropic concentrations as high as approximately 2 mg ml(-1), which is an order of magnitude higher than previously reported values. This occurs without the need for covalent functionalization, surfactant stabilization, or sonication, which can compromise the properties of graphene or reduce flake size. We also report spontaneous formation of liquid-crystalline phases at high concentrations ( approximately 20-30 mg ml(-1)). Transparent, conducting films are produced from these dispersions at 1,000 Omega square(-1) and approximately 80% transparency. High-concentration solutions, both isotropic and liquid crystalline, could be particularly useful for making flexible electronics as well as multifunctional fibres.

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