Although there is considerable research into the genetic background of autism spectrum disorders, environmental factors are likely to contribute to the variation in prevalence over time. Rodent experiments indicate that environmental exposures can have effects on subsequent generations, and human studies indicate that parental prenatal exposures may play a part in developmental variation. Here we use the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) to test the hypothesis that if the mother or father (F1) had been exposed to their own mother’s (F0) smoking during pregnancy, the offspring (F2) would be at increased risk of autism. We find an association between maternal grandmother smoking in pregnancy and grand daughters having adverse scores in Social Communication and Repetitive Behaviour measures that are independently predictive of diagnosed autism. In line with this, we show an association with actual diagnosis of autism in her grandchildren. Paternal grandmothers smoking in pregnancy showed no associations.

Although much of children’s motor skills have a heredity component, at least half of the variance is likely to be influenced by the environment It is important to ascertain features of the environment that are responsible so that toxins can be avoided, children at risk can be identified and beneficial interventions initiated. This review outlines the results of published studies and recommends the areas where further research is required. We found much confusion with little comparability concerning the ages or measures used. Few studies had sufficient power and few allowed for confounders. We found that research to date implicates associations with prenatal drinking ≥4 drinks of alcohol per day; diabetes; taking antidepressant drugs; being deficient in iodine or iron; dietary fish; and postnatal depression. The child appearing to be most at risk was born of low birth weight (but not due to preterm delivery); or with neonatal problems.

Locus of control is one of the most widely studied concepts in the history of personality psychology. In spite of its popularity and its associations with numerous relevant outcomes, the ability of locus of control to predict future behaviors involving parenting effectiveness has been under researched. The few parent locus of control children's outcome studies are characterized by cross-sectional methodologies that focus on mothers. The present study uses a prospective methodology to compare data on mothers' and fathers' locus of control with their child's behavior outcomes from a large scale research project, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Based on Rotter's Social Learning Theory published in 1954 and past empirical research, it was predicted and found that parent internality was associated with more positive child outcomes than parent externality. More specifically, when both parents were internal, their children had more positive outcomes in sleeping, eating, and tantrum behavior as compared to any other parent locus of control combination. However external parents had a less restrictive attitude which appeared to have a more beneficial effect on picky eating. Results confirmed how important parent locus of control is in the lives of children. Based on the findings, researchers are urged to develop interventions to change advice to parents and promote more internal locus of control among parents.

Although locus of control (LOC) has been the focus of thousands of studies we know little about how or if it changes over time and what is associated with change. Our lack of knowledge stems in part from the past use of cross-sectional and not longitudinal methodologies to study small numbers of participants from non-representative populations. The purpose of the present study was to use a longitudinal design with a large representative population to provide relevant information concerning the stability and change of adult LOC. Before the birth of their child, and again six years later, mothers and their partners participating in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) completed LOC tests and structured stressful events surveys. Analyses revealed that stresses experienced in relationships with spouses, friends and family, financial stability and job security, and illness/smoking were associated with changes in LOC. Results suggest substantial variation of LOC within spousal/parent dyads and moderate stability of LOC over time for both men and women. Stressors associated with change in LOC may be possible candidates when considering interventions to modify LOC expectancies.

Locus of control (LOC) measures individuals’ expectancies regarding their ability to affect what happens to them based on how they behave. The more they believe their behaviour has something to do with what happens to them the more internal they are. In contrast the more they perceive that what happens to them is beyond their control and determined by luck, fate, chance or powerful others the more external they are. Copious research findings suggest that external LOC (ELOC) is associated with many adverse personal, social, academic and health outcomes. In spite of its importance in so many areas of human behaviour relatively little is known about the features of the early background of individuals that contributes to these expectancies. This is the first in a number of studies that will suggest possible antecedents and consequences of having a high ELOC.The study takes advantage of the data collected in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), which started by studying pregnancies in 1991–1992 of residents in an area of south-west England. Over 12000 of the women who enrolled during pregnancy completed a set of questions in mid-pregnancy from which an LOC score was computed. ELOC was defined as a score greater than the median. The relationships with characteristics of the women’s parents and her early childhood (<6 years) are considered first as unadjusted odds ratios and then as adjusted after analysis using hierarchical sets of stepwise logistic regressions. The relative contributions to the women’s ELOC was measured using a goodness-of-fit (GOF) measure.The analyses demonstrated the independent importance of maternal and paternal backgrounds as well as features of her early childhood (<6 years). The final model identified nine independent features (each with P < 0.0001): year of birth of her mother, maternal and paternal education levels, father smoked, mother smoked when pregnant, year of birth of study woman, the number of older siblings she had, whether her father was absent during this period, and whether she spent her childhood in the study area.In conclusion, the woman’s LOC appears to be independently influenced by a number of characteristics which may give clues as to possible mechanisms—and how internality may be supported in the future. Subsequent papers will assess both whether features of later childhood influence the woman’s LOC and whether the LOC of men in the study have similar antecedents.