Ice nucleation (IN) determines the microphysical properties of mixed-phase and cirrus clouds, thus exerting an important impact on weather and climate (Boucher et al., 2013;DeMott et al., 2010). Heterogeneous IN can occur above −38°C and requires ice nucleating particles (INPs) (Pruppacher & Klett, 1997), among which process immersion freezing from existing supercooled liquid water drops is the dominant mechanism for midlatitude precipitation (Mülmenstädt et al., 2015;Westbrook & Illingworth, 2013). Despite the important role of INPs, their atmospheric sources and abundance remain to be clarified in detail (Kanji et al., 2017;Seinfeld et al., 2016).The INPs refer to the immersion freezing mode unless otherwise stated in this study. The IN efficiency of particles is highly composition-dependent, and a few candidates are well established, including mineral dust (DeMott

No abstract