The aim of this study was to examine the attitude–exercise behavior relationship according to the theory of planned behavior. Two additional variables, multicomponent attitude strength and role identity, were constructed to expand the initial model. The participation of 395 females in physical fitness programs over a 2-month period served as a behavioral criterion. Attitudes toward behavior, perceived behavioral control, role identity, and attitude strength predicted intention to exercise. Also, exercise behavior was predicted from intention, perceived behavioral control, role identity, and attitude strength. Perceived behavioral control was a more accurate predictor of behavior than of intention. Results also showed that the planned behavior model was slightly more successful in predicting exercise behavior when attitude strength and role identity were added to the analysis. Findings are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications and in terms of the role of intention, perceived behavioral control, role identity, and attitude strength variables for understanding attitude–behavior relationships.

This study examined the effectiveness of different self-talk strategies on increasing performance in different motor tasks. Specifically, four laboratory experiments were conducted to examine the effect of motivational versus instructional self-talk strategies on four different tasks. Included in the experiments were a soccer accuracy lest, a badminton service test, a sit up test, and a knee extension task on an isokinetic dynamometer. Results of the first two experiments indicated that only the participants of the instructional group improved their performance significantly more than the motivational and control groups. Results of the third experiment indicated no significant differences between the three groups, although all groups showed improvements across trials. Results of the fourth experiment showed a significant improvement for both the motivational and instructional groups compared to the control group. It appears that when the task requires fine motor movements, an instructional self-talk strategy is more effective, whereas when the task requires predominantly strength and endurance, both motivational and instructional strategies are effective.

Although exercise is associated with depression relief, the effects of aerobic exercise (AE) interventions on clinically depressed adult patients have not been clearly supported. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine the antidepressant effects of AE versus nonexercise comparators exclusively for depressed adults (18-65 years) recruited through mental health services with a referral or clinical diagnosis of major depression. Eleven e-databases and bibliographies of 19 systematic reviews were searched for relevant randomized controlled clinical trials. A random effects meta-analysis (Hedges' g criterion) was employed for pooling postintervention scores of depression. Heterogeneity and publication bias were examined. Studies were coded considering characteristics of participants and interventions, outcomes and comparisons made, and study design; accordingly, sensitivity and subgroup analyses were calculated. Across 11 eligible trials (13 comparisons) involving 455 patients, AE was delivered on average for 45 min, at moderate intensity, three times/week, for 9.2 weeks and showed a significantly large overall antidepressant effect (g = -0.79, 95% confidence interval = -1.01, -0.57, P < 0.00) with low and nonstatistically significant heterogeneity (I 2 = 21%). No publication bias was found. Sensitivity analyses revealed large or moderate to large antidepressant effects for AE (I 2 ≤ 30%) among trials with lower risk of bias, trials with short-term interventions (up to 4 weeks), and trials involving individual preferences for exercise. Subgroup analyses revealed comparable effects for AE across various settings and delivery formats, and in both outpatients and inpatients regardless symptom severity. Notwithstanding the small number of trials reviewed, AE emerged as an effective antidepressant intervention. K E Y W O R D Sdepression, empirically supported treatments, exercise, mood disorders, treatment

Motivational climate is inherently a group-level construct so that longitudinal, multilevel designs are needed to evaluate its effects on subsequent outcomes. Based on a large sample of physical education classes (2,786 students, 200 classes, 67 teachers), we evaluated the effects of classroom motivational climate (task-involving and ego-involving) and individual goal orientations (task and ego) on individual students’ outcomes (intrinsic motivation, attitudes, physical self-concept, and exercise intentions) collected early (T1) and late (T2) in the school year. Using a multilevel approach, we found significant class-average differences in motivational climate at T1 that had positive effects on T2 outcomes after controlling T1 outcomes. Although there was no support for a “compatibility hypothesis” (e.g., that task oriented students were more benefited by task-involving motivation climates), the stability of goal orientations was undermined by incompatible climates.