Until now there has been no fundamental theory applicable for biodegradable metals (BMs). First, this paper optimizes the definition of BMs given in 2014. Second, the dual criteria of biodegradability and biocompatibility are proposed for BMs, and all metallic elements in the periodic table with accessible data are screened on the basis of these criteria. Regarding biodegradability, electrode potential, reactivity series, galvanic series, Pilling–Bedworth ratio, and Pourbaix diagrams are all adopted as parameters to classify the degradable and nondegradable nature of a material, especially in a physiological environment. Considering the biocompatibility at different levels, cellular biocompatibility, tissue biocompatibility, and human/clinical related biocompatibility parameters are put forward to comprehensively evaluate the biosafety of BMs. Third, for the material design of BMs, mechanical properties, chemical properties, physical properties and biological properties should be considered and balanced to guarantee that the degradation behavior of BMs match well with a tissue regeneration/repair procedure as the function of time and spatial location. Besides the selected metallic elements, some nonmetallic elements are selected as suitable alloying elements for BMs. Finally, five classification/research directions for future BMs are proposed: biodegradable pure metals, crystalline alloys, bulk metallic glasses, high entropy alloys, and metal matrix composites.

Efficient and precise genome editing is essential for clinical applications and generating animal models, which requires engineered nucleases with high editing ability while low off-target activity. Here we present a high-throughput sequencing method, primer-extension-mediated sequencing (PEM-seq), to comprehensively assess both editing ability and specificity of engineered nucleases. We showed CRISPR/Cas9-generated breaks could lead to chromosomal translocations and large deletions by PEM-seq. We also found that Cas9 nickase possessed lower off-target activity while with some loss of target cleavage ability. However, high-fidelity Cas9 variants, including both eCas9 and the new FeCas9, could significantly reduce the Cas9 off-target activity with no obvious editing retardation. Moreover, we found AcrIIA4 inhibitor could greatly reduce the activities of Cas9, but off-target loci were not so effectively suppressed as the on-target sites. Therefore, PEM-seq fully evaluating engineered nucleases could help choose better genome editing strategy at given loci than other methods detecting only off-target activity.

A biodegradable piezoelectric scaffold excited by exercise promotes chondrogenesis and cartilage regeneration in rabbit osteochondral defects.

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