During spermatogenesis, spermatogonial stem cells, undifferentiated and differentiated spermatogonia, spermatocytes, spermatids and spermatozoa all express specific antigens, yet the functions of many of these antigens remain unexplored. Studies in the past three decades have shown that many of these transiently expressed genes in developing germ cells are proto-oncogenes and oncogenes, which are expressed only in the testis and various types of cancers in humans and rodents. As such, these antigens are designated cancer/testis antigens (CT antigens). Since the early 1980s, about 70 families of CT antigens have been identified with over 140 members are known to date. Due to their restricted expression in the testis and in various tumors in humans, they have been used as the target of immunotherapy. Multiple clinical trials at different phases are now being conducted with some promising results. Interestingly, in a significant number of cancer patients, antibodies against some of these CT antigens were detected in their sera. However, antibodies against these CT antigens in humans under normal physiological conditions have yet to be reported even though many of these antigens are residing outside of the blood-testis barrier (BTB), such as in the basal compartment of the seminiferous epithelium and in the stem cell niche in the testis. In this review, we summarize latest findings in the field regarding several selected CT antigens which may be intimately related to spermatogenesis due to their unusual restricted expression during different discrete events of spermatogenesis, such as cell cycle progression, meiosis and spermiogenesis. This information should be helpful to investigators in the field to study the roles of these oncogenes in spermatogenesis.

Using multiple HPLC steps, we have identified and purified a 68-kDa polypeptide (as estimated by gel permeation HPLC) to apparent homogeneity, from primary Sertoli cell-enriched culture medium, that consisted of two monomers of 35 (alpha chain) and 33 kDa (ss chain) on SDS-polyacrylamide gel running under reducing conditions. Partial N-terminal amino acid sequence analysis of these two monomers revealed sequences of NH2-DXGESGVDLADRL (SODEX-alpha) and NH2-XXDTGESGVDLADXL (SODEX-ss), which are identical to rat extracellular superoxide dismutase (SODEX) with the exceptions that SODEX-alpha and SODEX-ss are missing, respectively, four (Trp-Thr-Met-Ser) and two (Trp-Thr) amino acids from their N-termini, compared to rat SODEX, suggesting that the cleavage sites of the SODEX gene in the testis are different from that of other organs. Studies by sequential use of reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using two SODEX primers have demonstrated the expression of SODEX in the heart, brain, lung, kidney, epididymis, testis, Sertoli, and germ cells, with low expression in the liver and ovary and no expression in the uterus, spleen, or thymus. Nucleotide sequence analysis of this 447-base pair PCR product from Sertoli cells revealed that its sequence is equivalent to the sequence of previously published rat SODEX. During testicular maturation, the SODEX steady-state mRNA level increased significantly from 20 to 60 days of age and then declined at 90 days of age. Such an increase in the testicular SODEX expression during maturation is not likely a result of an up-regulation by germ cells, since germ cells isolated from either 20- or 60-day-old rats when cocultured with Sertoli cells failed to elicit an increase in SODEX expression in the cocultures. Using primary Sertoli cell cultures in vitro, it was found that Sertoli cell SODEX expression was stimulated by interleukin-1alpha but not by either interferon-gamma or basic fibroblast growth factor. These results illustrate that Sertoli cells as well as germ cells synthesize and/or secrete a testicular variant of SODEX that may provide essential clues to understanding superoxide radical-mediated damage in the gonad.

Breast cancer resistance protein (Bcrp) is an ATP-dependent efflux drug transporter. It has a diverse spectrum of hydrophilic and hydrophobic substrates ranging from anticancer, antiviral and antihypertensive drugs, to organic anions, antibiotics, phytoestrogens (e.g., genistein, daidzein, coumestrol), xenoestrogens and steroids (e.g., dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate). Bcrp is an integral membrane protein in cancer and normal cells within multiple organs (e.g., brain, placenta, intestine and testis) that maintains cellular homeostasis by extruding drugs and harmful substances from the inside of cells. In the brain, Bcrp is a major component of the bloodbrain barrier located on endothelial cells near tight junctions (TJs). However, Bcrp is absent at the Sertoli cell blood-testis barrier (BTB); instead, it is localized almost exclusively to the endothelial TJ in microvessels in the interstitium and the peritubular myoid cells in the tunica propria. Recent studies have shown that Bcrp is also expressed stage specifically and spatiotemporally by Sertoli and germ cells in the seminiferous epithelium of rat testes, limited only to a testis-specific cell adhesion ultrastructure known as the apical ectoplasmic specialisation (ES) in stage VI-early VIII tubules. These findings suggest that Bcrp is equipped by late spermatids and Sertoli cells to protect late-stage spermatids completing spermiogenesis. Furthermore, Bcrp was found to be associated with F (filamentous)-actin and several actin regulatory proteins at the apical ES and might be involved in the organisation of actin filaments at the apical ES in stage VII-VIII tubules. These findings will be carefully evaluated in this brief review.

For non-hormonal male contraceptives that exert their effects in the testis locally instead of via the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis, such as adjudin that disrupts germ cell adhesion, a major hurdle in their development is to improve their bioavailability so that they can be efficiently delivered to the seminiferous epithelium by transporting across the blood-testis barrier (BTB). If this can be done, it would widen the gap between their efficacy and general toxicity. However, Sertoli cells that constitute the BTB, peritubular myoid cells in the tunica propria, germ cells at different stages of their development, as well as endothelial cells that constitute the microvessels in the interstitium are all equipped with multiple drug transporters, most notably efflux drug transporters, such as P-glycoprotein, multidrug resistance-related protein 1 (MRP1) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) that can actively prevent drugs (e.g., adjudin) from entering the seminiferous epithelium to exert their effects. Recent studies have shown that BCRP is highly expressed by endothelial cells of the microvessels in the interstitium in the testis and also peritubular myoid cells in tunica propria even though it is absent from Sertoli cells at the site of the BTB. Furthermore, BCRP is also expressed spatiotemporally by Sertoli cells and step 19 spermatids in the rat testis and stage-specifically, limiting to stage VII‒VIII of the epithelial cycle, and restricted to the apical ectoplasmic specialization [apical ES, a testis-specific F-actin-rich adherens junction (AJ)]. Interestingly, adjudin was recently shown to be capable of downregulating BCRP expression at the apical ES. In this Opinion article, we critically discuss the latest findings on BCRP; in particular, we provide some findings utilizing molecular modeling to define the interacting domains of BCRP with adjudin. Based on this information, it is hoped that the next generation of adjudin analogs to be synthesized can improve their efficacy in downregulating BCRP and perhaps other drug efflux transporters in the testis to improve their efficacy to traverse the BTB by modifying their interacting domains.

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The blood-testis barrier (BTB) is one of the tightest blood-tissue barriers in mammals including rodents and humans. It is used to sequester meiosis I and II, postmeiotic spermatid development via spermiogenesis and the release of sperm at spermiation from the systemic circulation, such that these events take place in an immune-privileged site in the adluminal (apical) compartment behind the BTB, segregated from the host immune system. Additionally, drug transporters, namely efflux (e.g., P-glycoprotein) and influx (e.g., Oatp3) pumps, many of which are integral membrane proteins in Sertoli cells at the BTB also work cooperatively to restrict the entry of drugs, toxicants, chemicals, steroids and other xenobiotics into the adluminal compartment. As such, the BTB that serves as an important physiological and selective barrier to protect germ cell development also poses a “hurdle” in male contraceptive development. For instance, adjudin, 1-(2,4-dichlorobenzyl)-1H-indazole-3-carbohydrazide, a potential nonhormonal male contraceptive that exerts its effects on germ cell adhesion, most notably at the Sertoli cell-spermatid interface, to induce “premature” germ cell loss from the seminiferous epithelium mimicking spermiation, has a relatively poor bioavailability largely because of the BTB. Since male contraceptives (e.g., adjudin) will be used by healthy men for an extended period of his life span after puberty, a better understanding on the BTB is necessary in order to effectively deliver drugs across this blood-tissue barrier in particular if these compounds exert their effects on developing germ cells in the adluminal compartment. This can also reduce long-term toxicity and health risk if the effective dosing can be lowered in order to widen the margin between its safety and efficacy. Herein, we summarize latest findings in this area of research, we also provide a critical evaluation on research areas that deserve attention in future studies.

Background Adjudin has been explored as a male contraceptive for the last 15 years since its initial synthesis in the late 1990s. More than 50 papers have been published and listed in PubMed in which its mechanism that induces exfoliation of germ cells from the seminiferous epithelium, such as its effects on actin microfilaments at the apical ES (ectoplasmic specialization, a testis-specific actin-rich anchoring junction) has been delineated. Objective Recent studies have demonstrated that, besides its activity to induce germ cell exfoliation from the seminiferous epithelium to cause reversible infertility in male rodents, adjudin possesses other biological activities, which include anti-cancer, anti-inflammation in the brain, and anti-ototoxicity induced by gentamicin in rodents. Results of these findings likely spark the interest of investigators to explore other medical use of this and other indazole-based compounds, possibly mediated by the signaling pathway(s) in the mitochondria of mammalian cells following treatment with adjudin. In this review, we carefully evaluate these recent findings. Methods Papers published and listed at www.pubmed.org and patents pertinent to adjudin and its related compounds were searched. Findings were reviewed and critically evaluated, and summarized herein. Results Adjudin is a novel compound that possesses anti-spermatogenetic activity. Furthermore, it possesses anti-cancer, anti-inflammation, anti-neurodegeneration, and anti-ototoxicity activities based on studies using different in vitro and in vivo models. Conclusion: Studies on adjudin should be expanded to better understand its biological activities so that it can become a useful drug for treatment of other ailments besides serving as a male contraceptive.

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