The authors evaluated the effects of response cards on the disruptive behavior and academic responding of students in two urban fourth-grade classrooms. Two conditions, single-student responding and write-on response cards, were alternated in an ABAB design. During single-student responding, the teacher called on one student who had raised his or her hand to answer the question. During the response-card condition, each student was provided with a white laminated board on which he or she could write a response to every question posed by the teacher. Nine students were targeted for data collection because of their history of disciplinary issues in school and frequent disruptive behavior in the classroom. Data revealed substantial reductions in disruptive behavior and increases in academic responding during the response card condition compared to single-student responding. The findings are discussed in terms of the beneficial effects of direct, high-response strategies for urban, low-achieving learners.

ArticleMost mathematics educators would identify problem solving as the cornerstone of mathematical learning (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2000). Teaching problem solving allows students to learn when and why, not just how, to apply these skills. Students typically learn problem solving through the use of word problems. Fuchs et al. (2008) note that word problems can be a source of difficulty for many students because these problems require not only calculation, but also comprehension of linguistic information.According to Mayer's (1985) model of problem solving, there are four sequential phases to solving a mathematical word problem, including problem translation, problem integration, solution planning, and solution execution. Each phase requires different cognitive skills for successful completion. At the problem translation phase, semantic language skills construct meaning from the problem for which a student must be able to determine "what is happening" to identify known and unknown information. The problem integration phase requires selection of integral parts of the problem (e.g., known and unknown amounts) and translating them to a mathematical structure (e.g., number sentence in equation format). Once the student has a mathematical understanding of the problem, he or she needs to devise a plan for finding the solution. The solution planning and execution phases involve choosing the correct operations and carrying out those computations to arrive at a correct answer. Because problem solving is innately a chained task of discrete behaviors, each phase of problem solving is dependent upon successful completion of the previous phase in order to yield correct execution and ultimate arrival at a correct answer (Jitendra, Griffin, Deatline-Buchman, & Sczesniak, 2007).The challenge of teaching word problem solving to students with developmental disabilities like autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and intellectual disability (ID) is twofold. First, there is a lack of research on instructional strategies for teaching word problem solving to individuals with ASD and ID. Browder, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Harris, and Wakeman (2008) conducted a meta-analysis to determine effective practices for teaching mathematical standards to students with moderate or severe developmental disabilities 643592R ASXXX10.1177/0741932516643592Remedial and Special EducationRoot et al. research-article2016 AbstractThe current study evaluated the effects of modified schema-based instruction on the mathematical word problem solving skills of three elementary students with autism spectrum disorders and moderate intellectual disability. Participants learned to solve compare problem type with themes that related to their interests and daily experiences. In addition, researchers compared the effects of concrete and virtual manipulatives within the treatment package. Results of the multiple probes across participants with an embedded alternating treatments design showed a functional relation between modified schemabased instr...

This study evaluated an intervention developed through an Institute of Education Sciences-funded Goal 2 research project to teach students with moderate intellectual disability (moderate ID) to solve addition and subtraction word problems. The intervention involved modified schema-based instruction that embedded effective practices (e.g., pictorial task analysis, graphic organizers, systematic prompting with feedback) for teaching mathematics skills to students with moderate ID. The dependent variables included steps performed correctly on a problem solving task analysis, number of problems solved, problem type discrimination, and generalization of problem solving skills. Results of a multiple probe across student dyads design indicated a functional relation between three dependent variables and the intervention. Upon completion of the intervention, all eight participants with moderate ID correctly followed the task analysis, discriminated problem types, and solved word problems. Key discussion items include feasibility of teaching problem solving skills, types of modifications needed, and the generality of these skills to novel formats.

This study evaluated the effects of a repeated reading (RR) intervention on the oral reading fluency and comprehension of six urban fourth and fifth-grade students with and at risk for emotional or behavioral disorders (EBD). A multiple baseline design across subjects was used to study RR effects according to gains in reading fluency, comprehension, and generalization to unpracticed passages under covert and overt timing conditions. Results indicated that all students improved both reading fluency (i.e., speed and accuracy) and comprehension when participating in RR. Improvements were also observed on the unpracticed generalization passages; the addition of overt timing and charting produced the greatest improvements. These gains were confirmed through administration of standardized tests in reading. Findings are described according to the beneficial effects of RR and the relative advantages of peer-mediated interventions with students with EBD.

Group contingencies have the advantages of encouraging individual students to collectively feel responsible for appropriate and inappropriate classroom behaviors and have shown effectiveness in improving students' behavior. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a random dependent group contingency on the on-task behaviors of six high school students with high incidence disabilities in a resource classroom. The study used an ABAB reversal design, and the results of the study indicated that the random dependent group contingency intervention was positively associated with increases in on-task behaviors for three of the six participants. Limitations and implications are discussed in relation to dependent group contingencies for high school students. C 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Overrepresentation of African American boys in disciplinary and special education referrals has been a national conern. This study used functional behavioral assessments (FBAs) and behavioral intervention plans (BIPs) as a means to prevent disproportionality of African American boys. Based on FBA results, interventions were developed for four elementary students to include skill training, differential reinforcement, and a self-monitoring program. The interventions not only meaningfully reduced the students' target problem behaviors to a level similar to that of their comparison peers, but also produced positive outcomes for their alternative replacement behavior. The across-setting generality effects, however, were limited. Implications are discussed regarding the efficacy of FBAs and BIPs for African American boys at risk for and with disabilities.

Teachers in rural schools benefit from efficient, low-tech, low cost interventions to improve student engagement, achievement, and overall classroom-related social behaviors. The response cards strategy has shown effectiveness with a range of students with and without disabilities. This study used a reversal design to examine the use of preprinted response cards on students' participation and off-task behavior during calendar circle-time in a rural kindergarten inclusion classroom. Results showed a functional relationship between preprinted response cards and increased participation and decreased off-task behavior for all 4 target students. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Reading proficiency is arguably the most important academic skill needed for school success. Students who fail to acquire basic reading skills in primary grades fall further behind their peers in intermediate and later grades. Despite national efforts to improve academic outcomes for all students, a recent national report in reading (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011) shows that 51% of African American, 49% of Hispanic, and 53% of Native American fourth-grade students were reading below basic levels. Included in this diverse group are students who speak a primary language other than English, commonly referred to as English Language Learners (ELLs). Although the need for early identification, systematic, and intensive intervention for struggling readers has been established (Lane, Menzies, Munton, Von Duering, & English, 2005), early interventions for at-risk students are underrepresented in the literature. For the purpose of this study, the term at risk was used to describe students from culturally and linguistically diverse groups performing below grade level on measures of early reading skills.Sight words, also referred to as high-frequency words, constitute a sizable portion of the text students encounter in reading. Many of these words do not conform to phonetic rules. Instruction in sight words not only can result in a corresponding increase in reading fluency and comprehension (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001) but also can improve students' confidence levels and reduce their frustration with reading (Bliss, Skinner, & Adams, 2006). Efforts to identify effective sight word reading interventions for at-risk students have included peer tutoring interventions (e.g.,