This study with grazing beef cows on the range was designed to explore the possibility of determining incremental energy expenditure (EE) in standing, traveling, and grazing relative to that in lying down, by means of continuous monitoring of EE, location, and activity by the heart-rate method, with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars, and by motion sensors in the GPS collars, respectively. Cows were observed on Mediterranean foothill rangeland covered with herbaceous vegetation through 4 seasons of the year. There were 2 stocking rate treatments, and 14 statistical models were evaluated, including one that was a stepwise model. Total daily EE (TEE) was affected by many interdependent factors apart from activity, including season, stocking rate, herbage quality, standing biomass, and reproductive state of the cow. Each model included all activity variables, plus some of the other factors. Across seasons and treatments TEE, in kJ/(kg of BW(0.75) . d), ranged from 469 in densely stocked, nonlactating cows in June to 1,092 in sparsely stocked, lactating cows in April. The cows' daily vertical and horizontal movements ranged from 75 to 174 m and from 1.5 to 4.2 km, respectively. Within a day, time spent traveling (without grazing) ranged from 0 to 32 min, and grazing time ranged from 4.4 to 12.1 h. Cows spent less time grazing (P < 0.001) in the summer, when herbage quality was low, than in winter and spring. Relative to the baseline EE while lying down, the daily increment incurred by grazing ranged from 13 to 48 kJ/(kg of BW(0.75) . d), and that incurred by grazing, standing, and traveling combined ranged from 38 to 74 kJ/(kg of BW(0.75) . d) or 5.8 to 11.4% of TEE. In conclusion, the estimates of activity costs yielded by 11 of the models were similar to one another, whereas those yielded by the stepwise model and the remaining 2 models were 20% smaller. The cost of grazing activity was estimated to be 6.14 J/(kg of BW(0.75) . m), and that of locomotion during grazing was 6.07 J/(kg of BW(0.75) . m), which agree with values obtained for animals and humans by means of a treadmill. The experimental and statistical approach tested here yielded fairly reliable estimations of energy costs of activities in grazing cows.

We determined the energy costs associated with the activities of beef cows grazing on Mediterranean foothill rangeland covered with herbaceous vegetation. Our central aim was to compare the energy cost coefficients obtained in this study, using relatively large plots, with those obtained in a previous study conducted on smaller plots. Measurements were performed in 3 seasons: in March on nursing cows grazing a 135-ha plot of high quality herbage (11.4 MJ/kg of ME), and in May and September on nonlactating cows grazing a 78-ha plot of low quality herbage (6.2 MJ/kg of ME). Poultry litter manure was given as a supplement in September. Stocking rates on the respective plots were 2.25 and 1.95 ha/cow; 5, 5, and 7 cows were monitored in the respective months. Heat production was determined by continuous monitoring of the heart rate and measurement of the oxygen consumption per heartbeat. Animal location was tracked with global positioning system (GPS) collars equipped with motion sensors. Activity was determined for 5-min intervals using suitable calibration equations. Horizontal and vertical distances traveled were computed by integrating GPS data and plot maps in a geographic information system. Three models were used to estimate the energy cost coefficients of engaging in a given activity and locomotion. Total daily heat production ranged from 644 (September) to 1,014 kJ.kg of BW(-0.75).d(-1) (March; P = 0.04). Estimates of the energy cost coefficients for activity states (kJ.kg of BW(-0.75).d(-1)) ranged from 42.7 to 46.2 for standing, from 84.5 to 92.4 for walking idle, and from 89.4 to 103.2 for grazing; those for locomotion (kJ.kg of BW(-0.75).d(-1).km(-1)) ranged from 2.8 to 2.9 for horizontal locomotion and from 21.4 to 27.9 for vertical locomotion. Estimated cost coefficients of standing, grazing, and horizontal locomotion derived in the present study from animals on relatively larger plots were similar to those of the previous study based on data from smaller plots, but the energy costs of walking idle and of vertical locomotion were greater in the present study than in the previous one. The differences found are associated with the fact that cows in the present study walked for longer periods of time and traveled longer distances in single uninterrupted bouts of locomotion than those in the previous study.

The main objective of this study was to determine to what extent grazing pressure and timing modulate the seasonal progression of herbage quality in hilly Mediterranean grassland systems. The study was conducted during six consecutive years between 2003 and 2008 at the Karei Deshe experimental farm, in eastern Galilee, Israel, dominated by rich hemicryptophytic grassland. Treatments included two different grazing intensities, heavy and moderate, with 1AE1 and 0AE55 cows ha )1 , respectively, and management that included a continuous and a seasonal stocking system that was divided at both intensities into early and late grazing. Herbage samples were analysed for digestibility, crude protein, neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent fibre contents. Significant differences in herbage quality were found between seasons and years. Herbage quality was significantly higher in paddocks grazed continuously or early in the season. Herbage quality increased with increasing grazing intensity as younger herbage and continued re-growth were maintained during the green season. The greater difference between herbage qualities was found at the peak of the growing season. The significant differences found in herbage quality emphasize the importance of the decision-making process aimed at improving cattle grazing management in Mediterranean rangelands and its consequences for the sustainability of the system.

Mammalian DNA replication is a highly organized and regulated process. Large, Mb-sized regions are replicated at defined times along S-phase. Replication Timing (RT) is thought to play a role in shaping the mammalian genome by affecting mutation rates. Previous analyses relied on somatic RT profiles. However, only germline mutations are passed on to offspring and affect genomic composition. Therefore, germ cell RT information is necessary to evaluate the influences of RT on the mammalian genome. We adapted the RT mapping technique for limited amounts of cells, and measured RT from two stages in the mouse germline - primordial germ cells (PGCs) and spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs). RT in germline cells exhibited stronger correlations to both mutation rate and recombination hotspots density than those of RT in somatic tissues, emphasizing the importance of using correct tissues-of-origin for RT profiling. Germline RT maps exhibited stronger correlations to additional genetic features including GC-content, transposable elements (SINEs and LINEs), and gene density. GC content stratification and multiple regression analysis revealed independent contributions of RT to SINE, gene, mutation, and recombination hotspot densities. Together, our results establish a central role for RT in shaping multiple levels of mammalian genome composition.