Even though the arctic zone of continuous permafrost has relatively cold mean annual air temperatures, we found an abrupt, large increase in the extent of permafrost degradation in northern Alaska since 1982, associated with record warm temperatures during 1989–1998. Our field studies revealed that the recent degradation has mainly occurred to massive wedges of ice that previously had been stable for 1000s of years. Analysis of airphotos from 1945, 1982, and 2001 revealed large increases in the area (0.5%, 0.6%, and 4.4% of area, respectively) and density (88, 128, and 1336 pits/km2) of degrading ice wedges in two study areas on the arctic coastal plain. Spectral analysis across a broader landscape found that newly degraded, water‐filled pits covered 3.8% of the land area. These results indicate that thermokarst potentially can affect 10–30% of arctic lowland landscapes and severely alter tundra ecosystems even under scenarios of modest climate warming.

We develop a permafrost classification system to describe the complex interaction of climatic and ecological processes in permafrost formation and degradation that differentiates five patterns of formation: ‘climate‐driven’; ‘climate‐driven, ecosystem‐modified’; ‘climate‐driven, ecosystem‐protected’; ‘ecosystem‐driven’; and ‘ecosystem‐protected’ permafrost. Climate‐driven permafrost develops in the continuous permafrost zone, where permafrost forms immediately after the surface is exposed to the atmosphere and even under shallow water. Climate‐driven, ecosystem‐modified permafrost occurs in the continuous permafrost zone when vegetation succession and organic‐matter accumulation lead to development of an ice‐rich layer at the top of the permafrost. During warming climates, permafrost that has formed as climate‐driven can occur in the discontinuous permafrost zone, where it can persist for a long time as ecosystem‐protected. Climate‐driven, ecosystem protected permafrost, and its associated ground ice, cannot re‐establish in the discontinuous zone once degraded, although the near surface can recover as ecosystem‐driven permafrost. Ecosystem‐driven permafrost forms in the discontinuous permafrost zone in poorly drained, low‐lying and north‐facing landscape conditions, and under strong ecosystem influence. Finally, ecosystem‐protected permafrost persists as sporadic patches under warmer climates, but cannot be re‐established after disturbance. These distinctions are important because the various types react differently to climate change and surface disturbances. For example, climate‐driven, ecosystem‐modified permafrost can experience thermokarst even under cold conditions because of its ice‐rich layer formed during ecosystem development, and ecosystem‐driven permafrost is unlikely to recover after disturbance, such as fire, if there is sufficient climate warming. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Research treating permafrost‐climate interactions is traditionally based on a two‐layer conceptual model involving a seasonally frozen active layer and underlying perennially frozen materials. This conceptualization is inadequate to explain the behaviour of the active‐layer/permafrost system over long periods, particularly in ice‐rich terrain. Recent research in North America supports earlier Russian conclusions about the existence of a transition zone that alternates in status between seasonally frozen ground and permafrost over sub‐decadal to centennial time scales. The transition zone is ice‐enriched, and functions as a buffer between the active layer and long‐term permafrost by increasing the latent heat required for thaw. The existence of the transition zone has an impact on the formation of a cryogenic soil structure, and imparts stability to permafrost under low‐amplitude or random climatic fluctuations. Despite its importance, the transition zone has been the focus of relatively little research. The impacts of possible global warming in permafrost regions cannot be understood fully without consideration of a more realistic three‐layer model. The extensive data set under development within the Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring (CALM) program will provide a significant source of information about the development, characteristics, behaviour, and extent of the transition zone. This paper is focused on the uppermost part of the transition zone, which joins the active layer at sub‐decadal to multi‐centennial time scales. This upper part of the transition zone is known as the transient layer. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Ground ice is abundant in the upper permafrost throughout the Arctic and fundamentally affects terrain responses to climate warming. Ice wedges, which form near the surface and are the dominant type of massive ice in the Arctic, are particularly vulnerable to warming. Yet processes controlling ice wedge degradation and stabilization are poorly understood. Here we quantified ice wedge volume and degradation rates, compared ground ice characteristics and thermal regimes across a sequence of five degradation and stabilization stages and evaluated biophysical feedbacks controlling permafrost stability near Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. Mean ice wedge volume in the top 3 m of permafrost was 21%. Imagery from 1949 to 2012 showed thermokarst extent (area of water‐filled troughs) was relatively small from 1949 (0.9%) to 1988 (1.5%), abruptly increased by 2004 (6.3%) and increased slightly by 2012 (7.5%). Mean annual surface temperatures varied by 4.9°C among degradation and stabilization stages and by 9.9°C from polygon center to deep lake bottom. Mean thicknesses of the active layer, ice‐poor transient layer, ice‐rich intermediate layer, thermokarst cave ice, and wedge ice varied substantially among stages. In early stages, thaw settlement caused water to impound in thermokarst troughs, creating positive feedbacks that increased net radiation, soil heat flux, and soil temperatures. Plant growth and organic matter accumulation in the degraded troughs provided negative feedbacks that allowed ground ice to aggrade and heave the surface, thus reducing surface water depth and soil temperatures in later stages. The ground ice dynamics and ecological feedbacks greatly complicate efforts to assess permafrost responses to climate change.

[1] We evaluated the development of lake basins on the central coastal plain of northern Alaska on the basis of topographic profiles, soil and ground ice surveys, radiocarbon dating, photogrammetric analysis, and regional comparisons. Our analysis reveals that lake evolution is much more complex and less cyclic than theorized by previous investigations. In the area we studied, there was insufficient ground ice in the oldest terrain to form thaw lakes, the aggradation of ice in the margins of drained lake basins was insufficient to heave the surface up to near original topographic conditions, and the process occurs at too slow a rate for a ''thaw lake cycle'' to develop within the Holocene. Accordingly, we revised the conceptual model of lake and basin development to be consistent with the patterns and process we observed on the extensive sand sheets underlying most of the coastal plain. Developmental stages include (1) initial flooding of depressions to form primary lakes, (2) lateral erosion, with sorting and redistribution of sediments, (3) lake drainage as the stream network expands, (4) differential ice aggradation in silty centers and sandy margins, (5) formation of secondary thaw lakes in the heaved centers of ice-rich basins and infilling of ponds along the low margins, and (6) basin stabilization.

Extremely ice-rich syngenetic permafrost, or yedoma, developed extensively under the cold climate of the Pleistocene in unglaciated regions of Eurasia and North America. In Alaska, yedoma occurs in the Arctic Foothills, the northern part of the Seward Peninsula, and in interior Alaska. A remarkable 33-m-high exposure along the lower Itkillik River in northern Alaska opened an opportunity to study the unmodified yedoma, including stratigraphy, particle-size distribution, soil carbon contents, morphology and quantity of segregated, wedge, and thermokarst-cave ice. The exposed permafrost sequence comprised seven cryostratigraphic units, which formed over a period from > 48,000 to 5,00014C yr BP, including: 1) active layer; 2) intermediate layer of the upper permafrost; 3–4) two yedoma silt units with different thicknesses of syngenetic ice wedges; 5) buried peat layer; 6) buried intermediate layer beneath the peat; and 7) silt layer with short ice wedges. This exposure is comparable to the well known Mus-Khaya and Duvanny Yar yedoma exposures in Russia. Based on our field observations, literature sources, and interpretation of satellite images and aerial photography, we have developed a preliminary map of yedoma distribution in Alaska.

Observations and measurements were made of physical and ecological changes that have occurred since 1985 at a tundra site near Healy, Alaska. Air temperatures decreased (1985 through 1999) while permafrost warmed and thawed creating thermokarst terrain, probably as a result of increased snow depths. Permafrost, active layer and ground‐ice conditions at the Healy site are the result of the interaction of climatic, ecologic and other factors. The slow accumulation of ground ice in an intermediate permafrost layer formed by upward freezing from the permafrost surface leads to long‐term differential frost heave and microrelief. When ground ice in the permafrost melts, the ground surface settles differentially resulting in thermokarst terrain (pits, gullies). Windblown snow fills the thermokarst depressions causing further warming and thawing of the underlying permafrost — a positive feedback effect that enhances permafrost degradation. Thermokarst‐induced changes in relief alter the near‐surface hydrology and ecological processes. Changes in vegetation included differential tussock growth and mortality and a shift in moss species abundance and relative productivity, depending on microtopographic position created by the thermokarst terrain. Water redistribution towards thermokarst depressions caused adjacent higher areas to become drier and resulted in increased moss mortality and shrub abundance. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.