IntroductionDiabetic retinopathy (DR) is a complication of the eye due to prolonged diabetes. In the United States, the prevalence of DR in a diabetic age group of 18 or older is 1 in 300 [1]. Glycemic control, diabetic duration, blood pressure control, blood lipids, among others are major determinants in the development and severity of DR [2][3][4][5]. Nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) is characterized by loss of capillaries, pericyte dropout, and formation of microaneurysms [6][7][8][9]. NPDR progression to proliferative stage (PDR) is characterized by neovascularization and excessive angiogenesis [10][11][12] which causes swelling of capillaries and leakage of fluids on aqueous and vitreous humors, as well as retinal detachment [13], eventually leading to partial or complete vision loss.There are various growth factors associated with diabetic retinopathy [14]. One of the widely investigated known growth factors is Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF). VEGF is a group of glycoproteins existing in many isoforms [15]. VEGF/VEGF-A (a 45KDa glycoprotein) is known to promote neovascularization and angiogenesis [16,17]. VEGF is secreted by retinal pigment epithelial cells, endothelial cells, pericytes, ganglion cells, choroidal fibroblast cells, Müller cells and others in the retina [18][19][20][21][22][23][24]. The VEGF levels in DR may partly be elevated due to oxidative stress, glycation products [25], and hypoxia.Müller cells are one of the three types of glial cells in the retina. They span radially along the thickness of the retina and play a
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