BackgroundFoot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes a severe vesicular disease in domestic and wild cloven-hoofed animals. Because of the limited early protection induced by current vaccines, emergency antiviral strategies to control the rapid spread of FMD outbreaks are needed.Here we constructed multiple microRNAs (miRNAs) targeting the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) element of FMDV and investigated the effect of IRES-specific miRNAs on FMDV replication in baby hamster kidney (BHK-21) cells and suckling mice.ResultsFour IRES-specific miRNAs significantly reduced enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) expression from IRES-EGFP reporter plasmids, which were used with each miRNA expression plasmid in co-transfection of BHK-21 cells. Furthermore, treatment of BHK-21 cells with Bi-miRNA (a mixture of two miRNA expression plasmids) and Dual-miRNA (a co-cistronic expression plasmid containing two miRNA hairpin structures) induced more efficient and greater inhibition of EGFP expression than did plasmids carrying single miRNA sequences.Stably transformed BHK-21 cells and goat fibroblasts with an integrating IRES-specific Dual-miRNA were generated, and real-time quantitative RT-PCR showed that the Dual-miRNA was able to effectively inhibit the replication of FMDV (except for the Mya98 strain) in the stably transformed BHK-21 cells.The Dual-miRNA plasmid significantly delayed the deaths of suckling mice challenged with 50× and 100× the 50% lethal dose (LD50) of FMDV vaccine strains of three serotypes (O, A and Asia 1), and induced partial/complete protection against the prevalent PanAsia-1 and Mya98 strains of FMDV serotype O.ConclusionThese data demonstrate that IRES-specific miRNAs can significantly inhibit FMDV infection in vitro and in vivo.

Autophagy is an evolutionarily ancient pathway that has been shown to be important in the innate immune defense against several viruses. However, little is known about the regulatory role of autophagy in transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) replication. In this study, we found that TGEV infection increased the number of autophagosome-like double- and single-membrane vesicles in the cytoplasm of host cells, a phenomenon that is known to be related to autophagy. In addition, virus replication was required for the increased amount of the autophagosome marker protein LC3-II. Autophagic flux occurred in TGEV-infected cells, suggesting that TGEV infection triggered a complete autophagic response. When autophagy was pharmacologically inhibited by wortmannin or LY294002, TGEV replication increased. The increase in virus yield via autophagy inhibition was further confirmed by the use of siRNA duplexes, through which three proteins required for autophagy were depleted. Furthermore, TGEV replication was inhibited when autophagy was activated by rapamycin. The antiviral response of autophagy was confirmed by using siRNA to reduce the expression of gene p300, which otherwise inhibits autophagy. Together, the results indicate that TGEV infection activates autophagy and that autophagy then inhibits further TGEV replication.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is a worldwide-distributed alphacoronavirus, but the pathogenesis of PEDV infection is not fully characterized. During virus infection, type I interferon (IFN) is a key mediator of innate antiviral responses. Most coronaviruses develop some strategy for at least partially circumventing the IFN response by limiting the production of IFN and by delaying the activation of the IFN response. However, the molecular mechanisms by which PEDV antagonizes the antiviral effects of interferon have not been fully characterized. Especially, how PEDV impacts IFN signaling components has yet to be elucidated. In this study, we observed that PEDV was relatively resistant to treatment with type I IFN. Western blot analysis showed that STAT1 expression was markedly reduced in PEDV-infected cells and that this reduction was not due to inhibition of STAT1 transcription. STAT1 downregulation was blocked by a proteasome inhibitor but not by an autophagy inhibitor, strongly implicating the ubiquitin-proteasome targeting degradation system. Since PEDV infection-induced STAT1 degradation was evident in cells pretreated with the general tyrosine kinase inhibitor, we conclude that STAT1 degradation is independent of the IFN signaling pathway. Furthermore, we report that PEDV-induced STAT1 degradation inhibits IFN-␣ signal transduction pathways. Pharmacological inhibition of STAT1 degradation rescued the ability of the host to suppress virus replication. Collectively, these data show that PEDV is capable of subverting the type I interferon response by inducing STAT1 degradation. IMPORTANCEIn this study, we show that PEDV is resistant to the antiviral effect of IFN. The molecular mechanism is the degradation of STAT1 by PEDV infection in a proteasome-dependent manner. This PEDV infection-induced STAT1 degradation contributes to PEDV replication. Our findings reveal a new mechanism evolved by PEDV to circumvent the host antiviral response. P orcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is an enveloped, positive-stranded RNA virus in the genus Alphacoronavirus, family Coronaviridae, order Nidovirales (1, 2). PEDV is the causative agent of porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED), an acute, highly contagious, and devastating viral enteric disease with a high mortality rate in suckling piglets. Since PED was first reported in England in 1971 (3), the disease has broken out frequently in many pig-producing countries (4-9). Despite the availability of vaccines, outbreaks continue to increase and pose problems for the swine industry, as well as public health concerns (10-12).During viral infection, the innate immune response is often activated, leading to the induction of type I interferon (IFN-I), or alpha/beta interferon (IFN-␣/␤). IFN-␣/␤ is a potent cytokine of critical importance in controlling viral infections and priming adaptive immune responses (13). The biological activities of IFN-I are initiated by the binding of IFN-␣/␤ to its cognate receptors on the cell surface (14, 15). The binding of IFN-I to its rec...

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), the causative agent of porcine epidemic diarrhea, has caused huge economic losses in pig-producing countries. Although PEDV was long believed to replicate in the intestinal epithelium by using aminopeptidase N as a receptor, the mechanisms of PEDV infection are not fully characterized. In this study, we found that PEDV infection of epithelial cells results in disruption of the tight junctional distribution of occludin to its intracellular location. Overexpression of occludin in target cells makes them more susceptible to PEDV infection, whereas ablation of occludin expression by use of small interfering RNA (siRNA) in target cells significantly reduces their susceptibility to virus infection. However, the results observed with occludin siRNA indicate that occludin is not required for virus attachment. We conclude that occludin plays an essential role in PEDV infection at the postbinding stages. Furthermore, we observed that macropinocytosis inhibitors blocked occludin internalization and virus entry, indicating that virus entry and occludin internalization are closely coupled. However, the macropinocytosis inhibitors could not impede virus replication once the virus had entered host cells. This suggests that occludin internalization by macropinocytosis or a macropinocytosis-like process is involved in the virus entry events. Immunofluorescence confocal microscopy showed that PEDV was trapped at cellular junctional regions upon macropinocytosis inhibitor treatment, indicating that occludin may serve as a scaffold in the vicinity of virus entry. Collectively, these data show that occludin plays an essential role in PEDV infection during late entry events. Our observation may provide novel insights into PEDV infection and related pathogenesis.IMPORTANCE Tight junctions are highly specialized membrane domains whose main function is to attach adjacent cells to each other, thereby forming intercellular seals. Here we investigate, for the first time, the role of the tight junction protein occludin in PEDV infection. We observed that PEDV infection induced the internalization of occludin. By using genetic modification methods, we demonstrate that occludin plays an essential role in PEDV infection. Moreover, PEDV entry and occludin internalization seem to be closely coupled. Our findings reveal a new mechanism of PEDV infection.KEYWORDS PEDV, occludin, tight junction C oronaviruses are a group of positive-strand RNA viruses belonging to the family Coronaviridae in the order Nidovirales. They are broadly distributed among mammalian and avian species, and they cause acute and persistent infections. In most cases, coronaviruses are generally associated with significant respiratory and/or intestinal tract diseases (1, 2). Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) has been identified as the etiologic agent of porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED), and it causes diarrhea, vomiting, and dehydration in infected swine (3, 4). Outbreaks of PED have occurred frequently in

As a consequence of their effects on ectodomain shedding, members of the A disintegrin and metalloprotease (ADAM) family have been implicated in the control of various cellular processes. Although ADAM family members are also involved in cancer, inflammation, and other pathologies, it is unclear whether they affect porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that inhibition of ADAM17 enhances PRRSV entry in Marc-145 and porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs). We also demonstrate that the inhibition of ADAM17 upregulates membrane CD163 expression, a putative PRRSV receptor that is exogenously expressed in BHK-21 and endogenously expressed in Marc-145 and PAMs. Furthermore, overexpression of ADAM17 induced downregulation of CD163 expression and a reduction in PRRSV infection, whereas ablation of ADAM17 expression using specific small interfering RNA resulted in upregulation of CD163 expression with a corresponding increase in PRRSV infection. These ADAM17-mediated effects were confirmed with PRRSV nonpermissive BHK-21 cells transfected with CD163 cDNA. Overall, these findings indicate that ADAM17 downregulates CD163 expression and hinders PRRSV entry. Hence, downregulation of ADAM17 particular substrates may be an additional component of the anti-infection defenses. IMPORTANCEADAM17 is one of the important membrane-associated metalloproteases that mediate various cellular events, as well as inflammation, cancer, and other pathologies. Here, we investigate for the first time the role of the metalloprotease ADAM17 in PRRSV infection. By using inhibitor and genetic modification methods, we demonstrate that ADAM17 negatively regulate PRRSV entry by regulating its substrate(s). More specifically, ADAM 17 mediates the downregulation of the PRRSV cellular receptor CD163. The reduction in CD163 expression represents another component of the anti-infection response initiated by ADAM17.

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) causes a fatal disease in small ruminants. V protein of PPRV plays a pivotal role in interfering with host innate immunity by blocking IFNs signaling through interacting with STAT1 and STAT2. In the present study, the results demonstrated that PPRV V protein blocks IFN actions in a dose dependent manner and restrains the translocation of STAT1/2 proteins. We speculate that the translocation inhibition might be caused by the interfering of the downstream of STAT protein. Mutagenesis defines that Cys cluster and Trp motif of PPRV V protein are essential for STAT-mediated IFN signaling. These findings give a new sight for the further studies to understand the delicate mechanism of PPRV to escape the IFN signaling.

No abstract

No abstract