Question: Urbanization has remarkable impacts on the phylogenetic and functional structures of plant communities. Both temporal and spatial comparisons along urbanization gradients are widely used in related studies, but there has been a lack of consistency in the results. Moreover, there is a need for studies that determine species assembly mechanisms through immigration and extinction. Therefore, two questions were addressed: (a) How do the phylogenetic and functional structures of ruderal species respond to urbanization, and do their shifts follow a similar pattern along temporal and spatial urbanization gradients? (b) What are the key underlying processes, i.e., either extinction-or colonization-caused clustering, that determine the phylogenetic and functional structures of ruderal species under urbanization? Study site: Two metropoles (Shanghai and Harbin) experiencing rapid urbanization in China. Methods:We collected occurrence data on ruderal species from 1955 and the present in two cities. Standardized effect sizes of mean pairwise phylogenetic distance and of mean pairwise functional distance values (MPD SES and MFD SES , resp.) were calculated to test whether there was phylogenetic and/or functional structure clustering along spatial or temporal urbanization gradients. β-MPD SES and β-MFD SES values were used to quantify the similarities among colonists, extinct species, and residents.Results: Along both the spatial and temporal gradients, the MPD SES values in each city decreased from significantly positive to significantly negative with increasing urbanization. Inconsistently, along the temporal gradients, the β-MPD SES values of the colonists/extinct species to the residents were significantly negative; along the spatial gradients, the β-MPD SES values of extinct species to residents were significantly positive with increasing urbanization. Conclusions:We found there was a clear phylogenetic clustering of ruderal species with increasing spatial and temporal urbanization gradients. Our analysis showed that the changes across the urban-rural gradient are mainly driven by species going extinct that are phylogenetically dissimilar to the resident species. The temporal Journal of Vegetation Science CUI et al.
Recently, there has been a growing trend toward developing eco-cities that are rationally structured, function effi ciently, and maintain a harmonious relationship with the environment. Functional eco-cities demonstrating symbiosis with nature are not merely a current urban development goal, but also make an important contribution to the establishment of sustainable development strategies across the world. The "near-natural" method of ecological construction and restoration has attracted attention worldwide, and has been widely proven to be an effective method of constructing ecological cities in practice. It will also play a key role in urban landscaping and greening in China. After studying the problems associated with constructing an ecocity in Shanghai, we proposed the use of the near-natural method to construct an urban ecosystem in the city and introduced a theory and methodology for creation of "near-natural forests" and "near-natural water systems." All the cases we studied demonstrated that restoration using the near-natural method could be more effective, long lasting, and economical than existing methods, and that the method is now worthy of promotion as a means of constructing environments for human settlement.
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