Computer-system logs provide a glimpse into the states of a running system. Instrumentation occasionally generates short messages that are collected in a system-specific log. The content and format of logs can vary widely from one system to another and even among components within a system. A printer driver might generate messages indicating that it had trouble communicating with the printer, while a Web server might record which pages were requested and when.As the content of the logs is varied, so are their uses. The printer log might be used for troubleshooting, while the Web-server log is used to study traffic patterns to maximize advertising revenue. Indeed, a single log may be used for multiple purposes: information about the traffic along different network paths, called flows, might help a user optimize network performance or detect a malicious intrusion; or call-detail records can monitor who called whom and when, and upon further analysis can reveal call volume and drop rates within entire cities.This article provides an overview of some of the most common applications of log analysis, describes some of the logs that might be analyzed and the methods of analyzing them, and elucidates some of the lingering challenges. Log analysis is a rich field of research; while it is not our goal to provide a literature survey, we do intend to provide a clear understanding of why log analysis is both vital and difficult. DEBUGGINGMany logs are intended to facilitate debugging. As Brian Kernighan wrote in Unix for Beginners in 1979, "The most effective debugging tool is still careful thought, coupled with judiciously placed print statements." Although today's programs are orders of magnitude more complex than those of 30 years ago, many people still log using printf to console or local disk and use some combination of manual inspection and regular expressions to locate specific messages or patterns.The simplest and most common use for a debug log is to grep for a specific message. If a server operator believes that a program crashed because of a network failure, then he or she might try to find a "connection dropped" message in the server logs. In many cases, it is difficult to figure out what to search for, as there is no well-defined mapping between log messages and observed symptoms. When a Web service suddenly becomes slow, the operator is unlikely to see an obvious error message saying, "ERROR: The service latency increased by 10% because bug X, on line Y, was triggered." Instead, users often perform a search for severity keywords such as "error" or "failure." Such severity levels are often used inaccurately, however, because a developer rarely has complete knowledge of how the code will ultimately be used.Furthermore, red-herring messages (e.g., "no error detected") may pollute the result set with
Logs contain a wealth of information to help manage systems.
China’s Social Credit System (SCS) has been widely considered a centralized surveillance project, whereas recent research found multiple scoring systems co-existing in various fields at multiple administrative levels and in diverse forms. Despite the broadened view toward the complexity of SCS, these research projects continue to focus on SCS mainly as political and digital control mechanisms. Instead, this paper is interested in the social and cultural meanings of SCS constructed in the media, both at the national and local levels. Based on the analyses of news reports since the year 2003, when the term SCS was officially coined, this paper examines the historical narratives about SCS, including its rationales, stakeholders, and intended goals/tasks. It argues that the SCS construction has been a societal project anchored in a distinct moral orientation of financial credit. While credit systems are often used to classify consumers and financial subjects in Western contexts, the case of Chinese SCS shows that the moral dimension of financial credit scoring has enabled its spread into other non-financial domains. Also, the institutionalization of such moral standards is considered an effective approach to addressing various socio-economic and ethical issues that have long baffled economic development and social justice in China’s reform era.
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