Tartrazine is an artificial azo dye commonly used in human food and pharmaceutical products. The present study was conducted to evaluate the toxic effect of tartrazine on the learning and memory functions in mice and rats. Animals were administered different doses of tartrazine for a period of 30 d and were evaluated by open‐field test, step‐through test, and Morris water maze test, respectively. Furthermore, the biomarkers of the oxidative stress and pathohistology were also measured to explore the possible mechanisms involved. The results indicated that tartrazine extract significantly enhanced active behavioral response to the open field, increased the escape latency in Morris water maze test and decreased the retention latency in step‐through tests. The decline in the activities of catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GSH‐Px), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) as well as a rise in the level of malonaldehyde (MDA) were observed in the brain of tartrazine‐treated rats, and these changes were associated with the brain from oxidative damage. The dose levels of tartrazine in the present study produced a few adverse effects in learning and memory functions in animals. The mechanisms might be attributed to promoting lipid peroxidation products and reactive oxygen species, inhibiting endogenous antioxidant defense enzymes and the brain tissue damage. Practical Application:  Tartrazine is an artificial azo dye commonly used in human food and pharmaceutical products. Since the last assessment carried out by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives in 1964, many new studies have been conducted. However, there is a little information about the effects on learning and memory performance. The present study was conducted to evaluate the toxic effect of tartrazine on the learning and memory functions in animals and its possible mechanism involved. Based on our results, we believe that more extensive assessment of food additives in current use is warranted.

Quantum-chemical calculations have been performed for the chalcogen- and halogen-bonded complexes of F2CSe with a series of nitrogen bases (N2, NCH, NH3, NHCH2, NCLi, and NMe3) and dihalogen molecules (BrCl, ClF, and BrF), respectively. Both types of interactions are mainly driven by the electrostatic and orbital interactions. The chalcogen bond becomes stronger in the order of NCH (sp) < NH3 (sp(3)) < NHCH2 (sp(2)), showing some inconsistence with the electronegativity of the hybridized N atom. The Li and methyl groups have an enhancing effect on the strength of chalcogen bond; however, the former is jointly achieved through the electrostatic and orbital interactions, whereas the orbital interaction has dominant contribution to the latter enhancement. The halogen bond with F2CX (X = O, S, Se) as the electron donor is stronger for the heavier chalcogen atom, exhibiting a reverse dependence on the chalcogen atom with that in hydrogen bonds. The halogen bond is further strengthened by the presence of chalcogen bond in the ternary complexes. In addition, CSD research confirms the abundance of Se···N interaction in crystal materials.

An ab initio computational study of the regulating function of the methyl group in the strength of the CH...O hydrogen bond (HB) with XCC-H (X = H, CH3, F) as a HB donor and HOY (Y = H, CH3, Cl) as a HB acceptor has been carried out at the MP2/aug-cc-pVDZ and MP2/aug-cc-pVTZ levels. The bond lengths, interaction energies, and stretching frequencies are compared in the gas phase. The results indicate that the methyl substitution of the proton acceptor strengthens the CH...O HB, whereas that of the proton donor weakens the CH...O HB. NBO analysis demonstrates that the methyl group of the proton acceptor is electron-withdrawing and that of the proton donor is electron-donating in the formation of the CH...O HB. The electron-donation of the methyl group in the proton acceptor plays a positive contribution to the formation of the CH...O HB, whereas the electron-withdrawing action of the methyl group in the proton donor plays a negative contribution to the formation of the CH...O HB. The positive contribution of methyl group in the proton acceptor is larger than the negative contribution of methyl group in the proton donor.

Ab initio calculations have been carried out to study the substitution effect on the π pnicogen bond in ZH(2)P-C(2)HM (Z = H, H(3)C, NC, F; M = H, CH(3), Li) dimer, cooperative effect of the π pnicogen bond and hydrogen bond in XH-FH(2)Y-C(2)H(4) (X = HO, NC, F; Y = P and As) trimer, and solvent effect on the π pnicogen bond in FH(2)P-C(2)H(2), FH(2)P-C(2)H(4), FH(2)As-C(2)H(2), and FH(2)As-C(2)H(4) dimers. The interaction energy of π pnicogen bond increases in magnitude from -1.51 kcal mol(-1) in H(3)P-C(2)H(2) dimer to -7.53 kcal mol(-1) in FH(2)P-C(2)HLi dimer at the MP2/aug-cc-pVTZ level. The π pnicogen bond is enhanced by 12-30 % due to the presence of hydrogen bond in the trimer. The π pnicogen bond is also enhanced in solvents. The natural bond orbital analysis and symmetry adapted perturbation theory (SAPT) were used to unveil the source of substitution, cooperative, and solvent effects.

The cooperativity between the O-H...O and C-H...O hydrogen bonds has been studied by quantum chemical calculations at the MP2/6-311++G(d,p) level in gaseous phase and at the B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) level in solution. The interaction energies of the O-H...O and C-H...O H-bonds are increased by 53 and 58%, respectively, demonstrating that there is a large cooperativity. Analysis of hydrogen-bonding lengths, OH bond lengths, and OH stretching frequencies also supports such a conclusion. By NBO analysis, it is found that orbital interaction plays a great role in enhancing their cooperativity. The strength increase of the C-H...O H-bond is larger than that of the O-H...O H-bond due to the cooperativity. The solvent has a weakening effect on the cooperativity.

The effect of substitution, hybridization, and solvent on the properties of the C...HO single-electron hydrogen bond has been investigated with quantum chemical calculations. Methyl radical, ethyl radical, and vinyl radical are used as the proton acceptors and are paired with water, methanol, HOCl, and vinyl alcohol. Halogenation (Cl) of the proton donor strengthens this type of hydrogen bond. The methyl group in the proton donor and proton acceptor plays a different role in the formation of the C...HO single-electron hydrogen bond. The former is electron-withdrawing, and the latter is electron-donating, both making a constructive contribution to the enhancement of the interaction. The contribution of the methyl group in the proton acceptor is larger than that in the proton donor. The increase of acidity of the proton is helpful to form a single-electron hydrogen bond. As the proton acceptor varies from the methyl radical to the vinyl radical, the interaction strength also increases. The solvent has an enhancing influence on the strength of the C...HO single-electron hydrogen bond. These factors affect the C...HO single-electron hydrogen bond in a similar way that they do other types of hydrogen bonds.

Quantum chemical calculations have been performed to study the interaction of H(3)NBH(3) with dihalogen molecules XY (XY = ClF, ClCl, BrF, BrCl, and BrBr) at the MP2/aug-cc-pVTZ level. It is shown that a halogen-hydride halogen bond is formed between the two molecules, in which the sigma electron of the B-H bond in H(3)NBH(3) acts as the electron donor. The strength of the halogen bond ranges from 14.82 kJ/mol in H(3)NBH(3)-ClCl complex to 40.13 kJ/mol in H(3)NBH(3)-BrF complex at the CCSD(T)/aug-cc-pVTZ level, which is comparable to medium strong hydrogen bonds. The B-H and X-Y bonds are elongated with a concomitance of a red shift. The analyses of natural bond orbital and atoms in molecules have been carried out to understand the nature of properties of this novel interaction. The results show that this interaction has partially covalent character.

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