Changes in glacial lakes and the consequences of these changes, particularly on the development of water resources and management of glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) risk, has become one of the challenges in the sustainable development of high mountain areas in the context of global warming. This paper presents the findings of a study on the distribution of, and area changes in, glacial lakes in the Koshi basin in the central Himalayas. Data on the number of glacial lakes and their area was generated for the years 1977, 1990, 2000, and 2010 using Landsat satellite images. According to the glacial lake inventory in 2010, there were a total of 2168 glacial lakes with a total area of 127.61 km 2 and average size of 0.06 km 2 in the Koshi basin. Of these, 47% were moraine dammed lakes, 34.8% bedrock dammed lakes and 17.7% ice dammed lakes. The number of glacial lakes increased consistently over the study period from 1160 in 1977 to 2168 in 2010, an overall growth rate of 86.9%. The area of glacial lakes also increased from 94.44 km 2 in 1977 to 127.61 km 2 in 2010, a growth rate of 35.1%. A large number of glacial lakes in the inventory are small in size (≤ 0.1 km 2). End moraine dammed lakes with area greater than 0.1 km 2 were selected to analyze the change characteristics of glacial lakes in the basin. The results show that, in 2010, there were 129 lakes greater than 0.1 km 2 in area; these lakes had a total area of 42.92 km 2 in 1997, increasing to 63.28 km 2 in 2010. The Decadal glacial lake changes in the Koshi basin, central Himalaya, from 1977 to 2010, derived from Landsat satellite images Finu SHRESTHA 1 *
The extensive use of carrier-aided smoothing code (CSC) filters has led to a reduction in the noise level of raw code measurements in GNSS positioning and navigation applications. However, the existing CSC technique is sensitive to the changes in the integer ambiguity, and then the smoothing procedure needs to be restarted in the presence of cycle slips. As the Doppler shift is instantaneously observed and immune to cycle slips, the Doppler-aided smoothing code (DSC) algorithm would be more promising in a challenged environment. Based on the Hatch filter, an optimal DSC approach is proposed with the principle of minimum variance. Meanwhile, to inhibit the effect of the integral cumulative error of the Doppler, a balance factor is adopted to adjust the contributions of raw code and DSC. The noise level of code observable is not only affected by thermal noise, but also limited by systematic bias. Satellite code bias (SCB) was identified in the raw code observable on each frequency for each BDS-2 satellite. By minimizing the sum of the absolute value of residuals, the polynomial segment fitting algorithm as a function of elevation angles is applied to establish the SCB correction model based on epoch-differenced multipath (MP) deviations. Finally, different types of experiments demonstrate the validity and efficiency of the refined DSC filter with SCB corrections on each available frequency for BDS un-GEO satellites.
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