The pineal gland hormone melatonin exerts its regulatory roles in a variety of physiological and pathological responses through two G protein-coupled receptors, melatonin receptor type 1 (MT1) and melatonin receptor type 2 (MT2), which have been recognized as promising targets in the treatment of a number of human diseases and disorders. The MT1 receptor was identified nearly 20 years ago; however, the molecular mechanisms by which MT1-mediated signaling affects physiology remain to be further elucidated. In this study, using HEK293 cells stably expressing the human MT1 receptor, melatonin induced a concentration-dependent activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2). The melatonin-mediated phosphorylation of ERK1/2 at later time points (≥5 min) was strongly suppressed by pretreatment with pertussis toxin, but only a slight, if any, inhibition of ERK1/2 activation at early time points (≤2 min) was detected. Further experiments demonstrated that the Gβγ subunit, phosphoinositide 3-kinase, and calcium-insensitive protein kinase C were involved in the MT1-mediated activation of ERK1/2 at later time points (≥5 min). Moreover, results derived from cAMP assays combined with a MT1 mutant indicated that the human MT1 receptor could also couple to Gs protein, stimulating intracellular cAMP formation, and that the MT1-induced activation of ERK1/2 at early time points (≤2 min) was mediated by the Gs/cAMP/PKA cascade. Our findings may provide new insights into the pharmacological effects and physiological functions modulated by the MT1-mediated activation of ERK1/2.

Human neuropeptide S (NPS) and its cognate receptor regulate important biological functions in the brain and have emerged as a future therapeutic target for treatment of a variety of neurological and psychiatric diseases. The human NPS (hNPS) receptor has been shown to dually couple to G␣ s -and G␣ q -dependent signaling pathways. The human NPS analog hNPS-(1-10), lacking 10 residues from the C terminus, has been shown to stimulate Ca 2؉ mobilization in a manner comparable with full-length hNPS in vitro but seems to fail to induce biological activity in vivo. Here, results derived from a number of cellbased functional assays, including intracellular cAMP-response element (CRE)-driven luciferase activity, Ca 2؉ mobilization, and ERK1/2 phosphorylation, show that hNPS-(1-10) preferentially activates G␣ q -dependent Ca 2؉ mobilization while exhibiting less activity in triggering G␣ s -dependent CRE-driven luciferase activity. We further demonstrate that both G␣ q -and G␣ s -coupled signaling pathways contribute to full-length hNPS-mediated activation of ERK1/2, whereas hNPS-(1-10)-promoted ERK1/2 activation is completely inhibited by the G␣ q inhibitor UBO-QIC but not by the PKA inhibitor H89. Moreover, the results of Ala-scanning mutagenesis of hNPS-(1-13) indicated that residues Lys 11 and Lys 12 are structurally crucial for the hNPS receptor to couple to G␣ s -dependent signaling. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that hNPS-(1-10) is a biased agonist favoring G␣ q -dependent signaling. It may represent a valuable chemical probe for further investigation of the therapeutic potential of human NPS receptor-directed signaling in vivo.

The niacin receptor HCA2 is implicated in controlling inflammatory host responses with yet poorly understood mechanistic basis. We previously reported that HCA2 in A431 epithelial cells transduced Gβγ-protein kinase C- and Gβγ-metalloproteinase/EGFR-dependent MAPK/ERK signaling cascades. Here, we investigated the role of HCA2 in macrophage-mediated inflammation and the underlying mechanisms. We found that proinflammatory stimulants LPS, IL-6 and IL-1β up-regulated the expression of HCA2 on macrophages. Niacin significantly inhibited macrophage chemotaxis in response to chemoattractants fMLF and CCL2 by disrupting polarized distribution of F-actin and Gβ protein. Niacin showed a selected additive effect on chemoattractant-induced activation of ERK1/2, JNK and PI3K pathways, but only the MEK inhibitor UO126 reduced niacin-mediated inhibition of macrophage chemotaxis, while activation of ERK1/2 by EGF alone did not inhibit fMLF-mediated migration of HEK293T cells co-expressing HCA2 and fMLF receptor FPR1. In addition, niacin induced heterologous desensitization and internalization of FPR1. Furthermore, niacin rescued mice from septic shock by diminishing inflammatory symptoms and the effect was abrogated in HCA2−/− mice. These results suggest that Gβγ/PKC-dependent ERK1/2 activation and heterologous desensitization of chemoattractant receptors are involved in the inhibition of chemoattractant-induced migration of macrophages by niacin. Thus, HCA2 plays a critical role in host protection against pro-inflammatory insults.

Background Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common liver disease in the world. Hepatic de novo lipogenesis (DNL) has been suggested to contribute to the pathogenesis of NAFLD. Recent studies have demonstrated that niacin (NA) modulates hepatic DNL through GPR109A. However, the underlying mechanism remains largely unknown. Objectives This study aims to elucidate the potential molecular mechanism by which GPR109A inhibits hepatic DNL. Methods C57BL/6 wild-type (WT) and Gpr109a knockout (KO) mice (male, 5 wk old) were fed a high-fat diet (60% energy from fat) firstly for 6 wk to generate a diet-induced obese model. Subsequently, they were randomly divided into 4 groups for the next 8–9 wk: WT mice with oral water [WT + vehile (VE)], WT mice with oral NA (50 mM, dissolved in water) (WT + NA), KO mice with oral water (KO + VE), and KO mice with oral NA (50 mM) (KO + NA). Mechanisms were examined in HepG2 cells. Body composition, liver histology, biomarkers of hepatic function, lipid accumulation, and lipid synthesis signals in HepG2 cells were measured. Results Upon activation, GPR109A apparently protected against obesity and hepatic steatosis (P < 0.05). The concentrations of hepatic Tnf-α in the WT + NA group were about 50% of those in the WT + VE group (P < 0.05). The activities of serum alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase were 26.7% and 53.5% lower in the WT + NA group than in the WT + VE group, respectively (P < 0.05). In HepG2 cells, activation of GPR109A resulted in remarkable inhibition of oleic acid–induced lipid accumulation via a protein kinase C–extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1/2–AMP-activated protein kinase signaling pathway. Conclusions NA inhibits hepatic lipogenesis in C57BL/6 mice through a GPR109A-mediated signaling pathway, consistent with the mechanistic studies in HepG2 cells, suggesting its potential for treatment of NAFLD and other fatty liver diseases.

The incidence of overweight and obesity has become a global public health problem, constituting a major risk factor for numerous comorbidities. Despite tremendous efforts, effective pharmacological agents for the treatment of obesity are still limited. Here, we showed that in contrast to lactate receptor GPR81, niacin receptor GPR109A‐deficient mice had progressive weight gain and hepatic fat accumulation. Using high‐fat diet–induced mouse model of obesity, we demonstrated that niacin treatment apparently protected against obesity without affecting food intake in wild‐type mice but not in GPR109A‐deficient mice. Further investigation showed that niacin treatment led to a remarkable inhibition of hepatic de novo lipogenesis. Additionally, we demonstrated that niacin treatment triggered brown adipose tissue and/or white adipose tissue thermogenic activity via activation of GPR109A. Moreover, we observed that mice exposed to niacin exhibited a dramatic decrease in intestinal absorption of sterols and fatty acids. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that acting on GPR109A, niacin shows the potential to maintain energy homeostasis through multipathways, representing a potential approach to the treatment of obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease.—Ye, L., Cao, Z., Lai, X., Wang, W., Guo, Z., Yan, L., Wang, Y., Shi, Y., Zhou, N. Niacin fine‐tunes energy homeostasis through canonical GPR109A signaling. FASEB J. 33, 4765–4779 (2019). http://www.fasebj.org

The histamine H3 receptor (H3R), abundantly expressed in the central and the peripheral nervous system, has been recognized as a promising target for the treatment of various important CNS diseases including narcolepsy, Alzheimer's disease, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The H3R acts via G i/o -proteins to inhibit adenylate cyclase activity and modulate MAPK activity. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms for H3R mediation of the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) remain to be elucidated. In this study, using HEK293 cells stably expressing human H3R and mouse primary cortical neurons endogenously expressing mouse H3R, we found that the H3R-mediated activation of ERK1/2 was significantly blocked by both the pertussis toxin and the MEK1/2 inhibitor U0126. Upon stimulation by H3R agonist histamine or imetit, H3R was shown to rapidly induce ERK1/2 phosphorylation via PLC/ PKC-, PLDs-, and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) transactivation-dependent pathways. Furthermore, it was also indicated that while the bc-subunits play a key role in H3R-activated ERK1/2 phosphorylation, b-arrestins were not required for ERK1/2 activation. In addition, when the cultured mouse cortical neurons were exposed to oxygen and glucose deprivation conditions (OGD), imetit exhibited neuroprotective properties through the H3R. Treatment of cells with the inhibitor UO126 abolished these protective effects. This suggests a possible neuroprotective role of the H3R-mediated ERK1/2 pathway under hypoxia conditions. These observations may provide new insights into the pharmacological effects and the physiological functions modulated by the H3R-mediated activation of ERK1/2.

21Niacin has long been considered as a high-potency drug for beneficially treating lipid abnormalities, 22 however, its anti-atherosclerotic effects have been challenged by recent studies. Here, we 23 demonstrated that oral supplementation of niacin resulted in a significant reduction in body weight 24 and fat mass without affecting food intake in high-fat diet-fed wild-type mice, but not in 25

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