ABSTRACT:Many organizations and groups are active in the field of standardisation. The "official" standards are published by the International Organization for Standardisation (ISO). Through the work of its Technical Committee 211 (ISO/TC 211) the ISO has taken the leading position in the standardisation of geographic information. The ISO/TC 211 has created a complete suite of standards for vector-based GIS which integrates all major developments in this field.The ISO-numbers for the geographic information standards are between 19101 and 19199 presently ending with 19140. The reference model, the spatial and temporal schema, the referencing by coordinates, the portrayal, the encoding and the metadata are typical titles of the individual standards. These standards have been completed in Phase 1 since 1994. Phase 2 focuses on imagery, gridded data and coverages. Those standards will be the most important development of the ISO/TC 211 in the coming years.Typical standardisation projects of Phase 2 are the reference model for imagery, the sensor and data model for imagery and gridded data, the encoding for imagery, and the metadata for imagery. The sensor and data models contain a comprehensive approach towards the classical and the new sensors of photogrammetry and remote sensing such as the photogrammetric camera, line sensors, and film scanners.Most of the ISO 19100 standards contain abstract solutions. Standards on the implementation level have been defined by other organizations such as the Open GISConsortium. In many cases the implemented solutions are well established existing formats or environments. However, many recent implementation developments are strongly influenced by the ISO works including the use of the Extensible Markup Language (XML), web-based services, and location-based services.
Remote sensing (RS) enables a cost-effective, extensive, continuous and standardized monitoring of traits and trait variations of geomorphology and its processes, from the local to the continental scale. To implement and better understand RS techniques and the spectral indicators derived from them in the monitoring of geomorphology, this paper presents a new perspective for the definition and recording of five characteristics of geomorphodiversity with RS, namely: geomorphic genesis diversity, geomorphic trait diversity, geomorphic structural diversity, geomorphic taxonomic diversity, and geomorphic functional diversity. In this respect, geomorphic trait diversity is the cornerstone and is essential for recording the other four characteristics using RS technologies. All five characteristics are discussed in detail in this paper and reinforced with numerous examples from various RS technologies. Methods for classifying the five characteristics of geomorphodiversity using RS, as well as the constraints of monitoring the diversity of geomorphology using RS, are discussed. RS-aided techniques that can be used for monitoring geomorphodiversity in regimes with changing land-use intensity are presented. Further, new approaches of geomorphic traits that enable the monitoring of geomorphodiversity through the valorisation of RS data from multiple missions are discussed as well as the ecosystem integrity approach. Likewise, the approach of monitoring the five characteristics of geomorphodiversity recording with RS is discussed, as are existing approaches for recording spectral geomorhic traits/ trait variation approach and indicators, along with approaches for assessing geomorphodiversity. It is shown that there is no comparable approach with which to define and record the five characteristics of geomorphodiversity using only RS data in the literature. Finally, the importance of the digitization process and the use of data science for research in the field of geomorphology in the 21st century is elucidated and discussed.
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