A unit hydrograph model is proposed in which the watershed is decomposed into subareas which are individual cells or zones of neighbouring cells. The unit hydrograph is found for each subarea and the response at the outlet to excess rainfall on each subarea is summed to produce the watershed runoff hydrograph. The cell to cell flow path to the watershed outlet is determined from a digital elevation model. A constant flow velocity is assigned to each cell and the time lag between subarea input and response at the watershed outlet is found by integrating the flow time along the path from the subarea to the outlet. The response function for a subarea is modelled as a lagged linear reservoir in which the flow time is equal to the sum of a time of translation and an average residence time in the reservoir. It is shown that the assumption of a spatially varying, but time-invariant, velocity field underlying this model produces a linear system model for all subareas whose outputs can be summed in the manner indicated. An example application is presented for the 8.70 km2 Severn watershed at Plynlimon in Wales using a 50 m digital elevation model in which the cell velocity is calculated by modifying an average watershed velocity according to the terrain slope and the drainage area of each cell. The resulting model reasonably reproduces the observed unit hydrograph.
Monthly average ambient concentrations of gaseous nitric acid (HNO3) and ammonia (NH3) were monitored at the Athabasca Oils Sands Region (AOSR), Alberta, Canada, between May 2005 and September 2008. Generally, concentrations of both pollutants were elevated and highly variable in space and time. The highest atmospheric concentrations occurred in the vicinity of the major mining and oil extraction activities of Fort Murray and Fort McKay. Maximum monthly average concentrations of HNO3 decreased from >6 μg m–3 2005 and 2006 to <4 μg m–3 in 2007 and 2008. While the HNO3 summer seasonal averages in 2005 and 2006 approached ~2 μg m–3 at some sites, in the subsequent summers and during winter seasons it rarely exceeded 1 μg m–3 and no clear differences between summer and winter occurred. Concentrations of NH3 were elevated during the entire study and frequently reached 6 μg m–3. Generally, NH3 stayed higher in summer than in winter; the summer seasonal averages often exceeded 4 μg m–3 while those for winter only on two occasions were above 3 μg m–3. In summer 2008, an expansion of the area with elevated NH3 levels was observed extending to remote locations. Ammonia is of a much higher concern from a perspective of possible biological effects, because of its potential for direct toxic effect on lichens and its contribution to the elevated N dry deposition with possible negative consequences for forests and other ecosystems
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